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1.
Teak (Tectona grandis L. f) has been introduced to reforestation programs in many tropical countries for timber production. The use of teak plantations has changed the supply from large-diameter logs to small-diameter logs featuring a higher proportion of juvenile wood and more knots. Generally, the teak from fast-growth plantation is harvested after 15–30 years of growth, with logs ranging from 12 to 30 cm in diameter. The goal of this work was to review the factors that influence the heartwood formation, variation, quality, color, and durability in teak and to understand which factors should be controlled in fast-growth plantations. Important factors in the heartwood properties of teak trees from fast-growth plantations are as follows: the tree age, longitudinal variation, geographic location, environmental conditions, and silvicultural activities. These factors influence heartwood extractive content, color variation, and durability. 相似文献
2.
Martin Kohler Julia Sohn Gregor Nägele Jürgen Bauhus 《European Journal of Forest Research》2010,129(6):1109-1118
To investigate whether drought tolerance of individual trees can be increased through the provision of more growing space,
trees from a thinning experiment were analysed for reductions in radial growth during drought years and their subsequent recovery.
Tree-ring widths were quantified on increment cores as well as stem discs of 32 trees from stands of a thinning trial established
in 1974 in 27-year-old spruce stands in the Alpine Foreland of Southwest Germany. Three different thinning regimes of the
trial were selected for this study: unthinned control (8 trees), moderate (13 trees) and heavy thinning (11 trees) intensities.
All trees sampled were of a co-dominant to dominant canopy status. The standardisation of growth data was carried out using
the software program ARSTAN (University of Arizona). For the year 1976—a widespread and severe drought year in Germany—we
found year ring widths were not reduced compared to those of the pre-drought years for all treatments. However, we observed
the formation of false year rings and resin ducts for this year in all trees investigated. The drought events in 1992 and
2003 led to severe growth depressions in the year of the drought event in all trees, regardless of previous thinning regimes.
However, the resilience—the recovery of basal area growth in subsequent years—was significantly more rapid in trees from heavily
thinned stands, even if the drought event occurred more than 10 years after the last thinning intervention. This indicates
a shorter stress period for trees with more growing space, which may reduce the susceptibility to secondary pathogens or pest
species such as bark beetles. 相似文献
3.
The tropical conifer Callitris intratropica (Cupressaceae) produces clear annual growth rings, and has been shown to be potentially useful for understanding past climate variability in northern Australia. As climate patterns in this region become less predictable, an understanding of plant responses to different weather patterns is of importance. In this paper, we examine tree water relations using a parameter here called tree water deficit (ΔD), determined from de-trended stem size variability in densely grown ('grove') and isolated trees. This parameter provides an integrated measure of the trees' response to water supply and demand under constantly changing environmental conditions. The work, conducted over 12 months, found that daily variation in tree water deficit was determined mainly by soil water availability, but temperature and relative humidity contributed more to the variability over some periods. Isolated and grove trees exhibited quite distinct patterns of ΔD development during the year, but particularly during the transition between the dry and wet seasons. The results of this work suggest that the dendrochronological interpretation of tree rings in the context of strongly seasonal water availability should incorporate an understanding of the development of seasonal drought in isolated trees compared with trees experiencing strong intra-specific competition. Different responses based on the ecological situations of the trees will affect their patterns of stem growth, and ultimately the climatic information that is incorporated in ring width variability. 相似文献
4.
After years of unsustainable logging, dry deciduous dipterocarp forest (DDDF) has become poor in timber stocks and has been converted to industrial crops such as rubber. The objectives of this study were to assess teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) tree establishment under degraded DDDF conditions and to determine factors that influence the suitability of teak as a forest enrichment tree species. A set of 64 experimental plots of 4 900 m2 each was set up and observed for 4–5 years for testing enrichment planting with teak under various combinations of two groups of factors: ecological conditions and forest status. Weighted, non-linear, multivariate regression models were used to detect key factors that influenced the suitability of teak. The results showed that at the age of 4 years the average dominant tree height (defined as 20% of the tallest trees in the experimental plot) reached 11.2, 7.8, 5.3 and 3.8 m for very good, good, average and poor suitability levels, respectively. Survival rates of planted teak from average to very good suitability levels were over 90%. Six key factors that affected the suitability of teak were waterlogging during the rainy season, altitude, stand volume of the degraded DDDF, soil type, percentage of sand and concentration of P2O5 in the soil. Under the extreme ecological and environmental conditions of the DDDF, enrichment planting with teak gave promising results. 相似文献
5.
Adzo Dzifa Kokutse Alexia Stokes Nomessi Kuma Kokutse Kouami Kokou 《Annals of Forest Science》2010,67(4):407-407
6.
《Forest Ecology and Management》2004,201(1):89-104
Samples of Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst) were dendrochronologically investigated in order to detect infestations by Dendroctonus micans (Kug.), the great spruce bark beetle (Col. Scolytidae), a relatively recent introduction to France. Uninfested natural forests located in the north-eastern French Alps and heavily infested plantations in the Ardèche region (Massif Central) were compared. The penetration holes bored in trunks by the bark beetle induced visible marks on wood, such as extreme ring width reductions, locally missing rings and crescent-shaped resin patches between consecutive rings that make possible a post-infestation dating.The outbreak began in 1979, 5 years prior to first insect visual detection by foresters. In the infested forest, tree basal area growth was not as sustained as in uninfested natural stands, but showed an inflection point at an unusually young tree age (from 30 to 40 years). Ring widths showing extreme synchronous radial growth reductions were caused either by excessively cold periods (e.g. in 1948, 1980, 1984, 1992) or by summer drought (as in 1986). Most of these weak growth years were shared with uninfested sites. In healthy forests, the consequences of extremely cold years were usually recorded only in high elevation stands, especially near the timberline, whereas summer drought effects were mostly visible in low altitude forests. By contrast, both phenomena were recorded in the infected Ardèche plantation. An analysis of tree-rings and monthly climate confirmed that Norway spruce growth in Ardèche plantations was reduced by excessively low minimum temperature during most parts of the year prior to ring formation, by higher than average maximum temperature during current spring and summer, and by drought in winter, spring and summer. Thus, the regional Ardèche climate with both cold winters and dry summers (especially in July) seems to weaken spruce trees planted there. Moreover, tree sensitivity to climate was found to be greatly enhanced by insect infestation. Such interactions between climatic stress and insect outbreak led to forest dieback in a 15–20-year period, when trees were still young (less than 70 years), and without any tree recovery. Therefore, in that region spruce plantations should be replaced by non-host species of Dendroctonus micans, especially where soil conditions may exacerbate drought effects. 相似文献
7.
Alejandro Martinez-Meier Leopoldo Sanchez Mario Pastorino Leonardo Gallo Philippe Rozenberg 《Forest Ecology and Management》2008,256(4):837-843
In a global warming scenario, drought and heat waves like the one that occurred in 2003 in Europe are expected to become more intense and frequent. This extreme climate event strongly affected the hydraulic balance in many forest tree species including Douglas-fir, with symptoms ranging from partial crown necrosis to death. We studied a French Douglas-fir provenance trial, strongly affected by the 2003 drought and heat wave. Using wood X-ray microdensity profiles as a record of cambium response to environmental variations, we compared mean stem density and growth between dead and alive neighbouring trees and several microdensity characters measured over 17 growth rings previous to 2003. Special attention has been given to the sampling layout in order to minimize the micro-environmental effects. At tree level, surviving trees have a significantly higher mean stem density. At tree ring level, they have a significantly higher mean ring density, maximum ring density, latewood density and, to a lesser extent, latewood proportion. No significant difference was found for diameter growth. These results could have direct implications in the way to study and predict possible acclimation and adaptation of forest trees to climate change process. Wood could be used for the selection of genotypes with a desirable plasticity and resistance to drought induced-cavitation. 相似文献
8.
Current knowledge on tree carbon (C) allocation to wood is particularly scarce in plants subjected to disturbance factors, such as browsing, which affects forest regeneration worldwide and has an impact on the C balance of trees. Furthermore, quantifying the degree to which tree rings are formed from freshly assimilated vs. stored carbohydrates is highly relevant for our understanding of tree C allocation. We used (13)C labelling to quantify seasonal allocation of stored C to wood formation in two species with contrasting wood anatomy: Betula pubescens Ehrh. (diffuse-porous) and Quercus petraea [Matt.] Liebl. (ring-porous). Clipping treatments (66% shoot removal, and unclipped) were applied to analyse the effect of browsing on C allocation into tree rings, plus the effects on tree growth, architecture, ring width and non-structural carbohydrates (NSCs). The relative contribution of stored C to wood formation was greater in the ring-porous (55-70%) than in the diffuse-porous species (35-60%), although each species followed different seasonal trends. Clipping did not cause a significant depletion of C stores in either species. Nonetheless, a significant increase in the proportion of stored C allocated to earlywood growth was observed in clipped birches, and this could be explained through changes in tree architecture after clipping. The size of C pools across tree species seems to be important in determining the variability of seasonal C allocation patterns to wood and their sensibility to disturbances such as browsing. Our results indicate that the observed changes in C allocation to earlywood in birch were not related to variations in the amount or concentration of NSC stores, but to changes in the seasonal availability of recently assimilated C caused by modifications in tree architecture after browsing. 相似文献
9.
A thinning experiment stand at Avoca, Ballinvalley, on the east coast of the Republic of Ireland was used to test a developed methodology aimed at monitoring drought stress, based on the analysis of growth rings obtained by coring. The stand incorporated six plots representing three thinning regimes (light, moderate and heavy) and was planted in the spring of 1943 on a brown earth soil. Radial growth (early- and latewood) was measured for the purpose of this study. A multidisciplinary approach was used to assess historic tree response to climate: specifically, the application of statistical tools such as principal component and canonical correlation analysis to dendrochronology, stable isotopes, ring density proxy, blue reflectance and forest biometrics. Results showed that radial growth was a good proxy for monitoring changes to moisture deficit, while maximum density and blue reflectance were appropriate for assessing changes in accumulated temperature for the growing season. Rainfall also influenced radial growth changes but not significantly, and was a major factor in stable carbon and oxygen discrimination, mostly in the latewood formation phase. Stable oxygen isotope analysis was more accurate than radial growth analysis in drought detection, as it helped detect drought signals in both early- and latewood while radial growth analysis only detected the drought signal in earlywood. Many studies have shown that tree rings provide vital information for marking past climatic events. This work provides a methodology to better identify and understand how commonly measured tree proxies relate to environmental parameters, and can best be used to characterize and pinpoint drought events (variously described using parameters such as like moisture deficit, accumulated temperature, rainfall and potential evaporation). 相似文献
10.
Fanny Hidayati Futoshi Ishiguri Kazuya Iizuka Kazuko Makino Jun Tanabe Sri Nugroho Marsoem Mohammad Na’iem Shinso Yokota Nobuo Yoshizawa 《Journal of Wood Science》2013,59(3):249-254
Tree improvement programs for teak (Tectona grandis) have mainly focused on breeding of trees with superior growth characteristics. However, improvement in wood quality should be included in breeding programs for high yield and high quality timber. In the present study, growth characteristics [stem diameter (D), tree height (H), and bole volume (V)], stress-wave velocity (SWV), and Pilodyn penetration (Py) were measured for 15 clones of 12-year-old teak trees planted at two different sites in Indonesia to clarify the variations in tree growth characteristics, SWV, and Py among clones, their repeatability, interaction between genotype and environment, and correlations between measured characteristics. Significant differences of all measured characteristics were found among 15 clones at both sites. Their repeatability showed relatively moderate to high values in both sites. These results indicate that these characteristics are closely related to genetic factors. Significant interaction between genotype and environment was found in all measured characteristics. In addition, SWV and Py showed lower interaction between genotype and environment than growth characteristics. No significant correlation was found between growth characteristics and SWV. These results suggest that wood properties and growth characteristics of teak trees can be improved by application of an appropriate tree breeding program. 相似文献
11.
The wood quality from 50- to 70-year-old Tectona grandis trees from an unmanaged forest in East Timor was assessed. The aim was to evaluate teak in mature stands that had undergone
uncontrolled disturbances, e.g., fire and local community usage. Heartwood represented 91% of the tree radius at a height
of 1.7 m, and sapwood contained on average nine rings. The mean ring width showed within-tree and between-tree variability.
The chemical compositions of heartwood and sapwood were similar. Within-tree chemical variation occurred only in terms of
extractives, which increased from the pith (8.3%) to the heartwood-sapwood transition (12.7%) and decreased in the sapwood
(9.2%). Overall, the wood properties of teak from a unmanaged forest in East Timor were comparable to those reported for plantation
teaks of other origin: 607 kg/m3 basic density, 3.5% and 5.2% radial and tangential shrinkage, 141 N/mm2 modulus of rupture, 10684 N/mm2 modulus of elasticity, and 50 N/mm2 maximum crushing strength in compression parallel to the grain. Disturbances on individual tree growth arising from the unmanaged
status of the stand were evidenced by higher within-tree variability of ring width. However, the longitudinal and radial variations
of wood density and mechanical properties were of low magnitude and in a degree that did not negatively impact on timber quality. 相似文献
12.
【目的】华北落叶松是内蒙古大兴安岭南段主要的人工林树种,分析华北落叶松年轮宽度指数的变化以及与气象因子的相关性,以此判断华北落叶松人工林在大兴安岭南段地区的适应性,为可持续经营管理提供理论依据。【方法】赛罕乌拉是大兴安岭南段次生林的典型地段,并且是内蒙古最大的次生林区。在1986年种植的华北落叶松人工林区域内,按国际树木年轮库(ITRDB)的要求,2013年随机采集54棵华北落叶松108根树芯,其中死树14棵。运用树木年轮气候学方法,建立华北落叶松年轮宽度年表,利用相关函数分析1986-2013年的气温和降水气象因子与年表的相关性,揭示华北落叶松径向生长对气候响应规律。【结果】(1)华北落叶松径向生长与上一年5、7月的平均最高温和平均气温呈显著性负相关(P <0.05),与当年冬季11月的降水量具有显著性正相关(P <0.05),和其它月份也均成正相关但显著性不明显,表明华北落叶松主要受到冬季降水量的影响。(2)通过年轮与气象因子的响应分析得出,华北落叶松对气候的响应具有明显的"滞后性",具体表现为,干旱胁迫对当年树木的径向生长量影响不显著,对第2年树木的径向生长量影响显著。2006年发生极端干旱年,发生后的4年内华北落叶松发生死亡现象。【结论】大兴安岭南段华北落叶松人工林的径向生长主要受到当年冬季11月降水量的显著性影响。华北落叶松受到干旱胁迫时有明显的"滞后性",影响体现在第2年即形成窄轮。这可能意味着,随着未来干旱的加剧,冬季降水对华北落叶松的生长变得更加重要。 相似文献
13.
Xingyuan He Zhenju Chen Wei Chen Xuemei Shao Hong S. He Yu Sun 《Annals of Forest Science》2007,64(7):743-756
A tree ring width chronology developed from 58 samples taken from Chinese pine trees (Pinus tabulaeformis Carr.) growing in Shenyang city was studied to analyze the effects of solar activity, Global Surface Air Temperature Anomalies (GSATA) and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) on annual radial growth. An excellent response of tree rings to solar activity and global environmental change was revealed, indicating that these urban Chinese pine trees are a suitable proxy for Sun-Earth system research despite their location in Shenyang, an industrial city. The information derived from annual growth rings of urban Chinese pine trees coincides with records from undisturbed trees in a natural location, and demonstrates significant synchronous response to solar activity in the periodic bands of 5–8, 10–12 and 20–30 years. The wave signal of tree growth was also affected and amplified by the combined effect of the PDO from 1900 to 2004 and GSATA from 1880 to 2004 with a short lag time, revealing 5–8, 11–13, and 20–23 year oscillatory modes. At 20–30 year timescale, Chinese pines validated the strong GSATA influence signal at 20.8 years, and may be the primary cause of the 20 and 23 year periodic waves of tree rings. Shenyang urban tree ring growth also showed high frequency variation (2—4 y) that may be due to low periodicity of solar activity, GSATA, PDO and local climate variations, especially in the 2–4 years band width. 相似文献
14.
Teak(Tectona grandis Linn. f.), one of the mostvalued tree species in the world, is slow-growing with a long period until it can be harvested;therefore, ensuring that only high-quality seedlings or clones are selected for planting is critical. The main objective was to determine performance and repeatability of selected clones in terms of growth and survival rates in different micro-environments. A 2-year clonal trial using 41 clones and a local seedling of teak as a control were grown at 4 microsites differing in spacing, soil fertility and alley crops to assess tree height, diameter and survival rate that was evaluated in Purwakarta, West Java, Indonesia using a randomized complete block design with four replicates of each clone at each microsite. Teak growth was influenced by clone(p < 0.01), microsite(p < 0.05) and clone 9 micrositeinteraction(p<0.01). The interaction clone 9 microsite resulted in several potential superior clones that differed in terms of growth rates at each microsite. On the basis of diameter only, superior clones(nos. 14, 18, 24, 30 and 37)were identified. Repeatability estimated was Rc2= 0.84 for diameter and Rc2= 0.77 for height. Growth performance of teak trees varied among microsites. Repeatability values for diameter and height characters were high. The effect of variable growth on each clone was influenced by genetic factors, environmental factors and the interaction of genetics 9 environment. Microsite significantly affected growth of teak clones. Clone 9 microsite interaction significantly affected growth of clones and led to the growth of superior clones at each microsite. 相似文献
15.
Juvenile wood properties are studied in a ring-porous tropical hardwood – teak (Tectona grandis L. F), to assess the utilisation potential of short rotation timber. Compared to mature wood, it is characterised by wide
rings, short fibres, small diameter, low vessel percentage, high cell wall, wide microfibrillar angle and relatively low or
almost similar mechanical properties. While the average modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture in juvenile wood are
85% and 82% respectively of the mature wood value, the longitudinal compression strength is similar. With relatively small
fibrillar angle of 15° and the scope for genetic selection of individual trees, teak juvenile wood has potential for desired
dimensional stability. The segmented regression models and visual interpretation of radial patterns of variation in anatomical
properties reveal that juvenility in plantation grown teak extends up to 15, 20–25 years depending on the property, growth
rate and individual tree and plantation site. The fitted regression models, to explain the age-related variations in juvenile
wood properties range from simple, linear to exponential, reciprocal and quadratic equations. Fibre length, microfibrillar
angle, vessel diameter/percentage and ring width appear to be the best anatomical indicators of age demarcation between juvenile
and mature wood, although maturation age often varies among the properties. The projected figures for proportion of juvenile
wood in plantation grown teak at breast height are 80–100% and 25% at ages 20 and 60 years respectively.
Received 3 November 1998 相似文献
16.
Guillermina Dalla-Salda Alejandro Martinez-Meier Hervé Cochard Philippe Rozenberg 《Forest Ecology and Management》2009
Drought response of three Douglas-fir clones (slow, intermediate and fast growing) inhabiting two different climatic regimes in France was examined. We used the hydraulic conductivity and the percent loss of conductivity due to embolism from stems and branches as well as wood microdensity measurements to determine the role of genetics in the control of embolism in this species. Conductivity and tree-ring’s microdensity variables (ring width: RW, mean ring density: MRD, minimum ring density: MID and maximum ring density: MAD) were compared in growth rings in all three clones during a typical year (2002) vs. an extremely dry year (2003). A new method was developed in order to assess axial hydraulic specific conductivity (Ks) within tree rings. The results show that branches are more resistant to embolism than stems, and that there are significant differences in embolism resistance among the clones between the two sites. Ks varied between years, sites and clones but the site exerted the most significant effect. Lartimache (more humid site during 2003) trees showed substantially higher Ks than those inhabiting Chassenoix (strongly affected by the 2003 heat and drought wave site). Wood analysis showed a significant year effect for all ring variables and a significant clone effect for all ring variables except for MAD, while the site effect was significant for MRD and MAD. The existence of a genetic control for the study traits indicates that Douglas-fir populations introduced in France may have a selection potential to face extreme climate events like the 2003 heat and drought wave. 相似文献
17.
Shoot anatomical features viz., number of vessel elements, width and length of vessel and fibre elements were studied in relation
to juvenility/maturity of teak (Tectona grandis Linn. f.). The findings show significant differences in these features, which indicates that variation in shoot anatomy can
be used as a reliable indicator of juvenility/maturity in teak. The effect of age of donor plants and application of auxins
on adventitious root formation in single noded leafy stem cuttings of teak was also investigated. Aging of donor trees suppressed
rooting and sprouting of cuttings, but increased callus formation at the base of cuttings. Per cent rooting and per cent sprouting
in cuttings decreased as age of donor plants increased from 2-months to 15-years and up to 30-years. IBA treatment promoted
per cent rooting as well as per cent sprouting, NAA promoted only rooting and it suppressed sprouting. The effect of auxin
treatment on rooting and sprouting of teak stem cuttings varied with the age of donor plants. Auxin and its concentration,
which suppressed rooting and sprouting in cuttings of younger donor plants, actually promoted rooting when cuttings were taken
from more mature donor plants. It appears that the auxin requirement for causing and promoting rooting in teak cuttings increased
with increasing age of donor plants. The higher auxin requirement for causing and promoting rooting in cuttings of older trees
may be due to a decrease in the content on endogenous auxins or decreased sensitivity of aging tissues to rooting promoters
and /or accumulation of inhibitory substances which inhibit rooting. 相似文献
18.
Stephen Adu-Bredu Alphonse Foua Tape Bi Jean-Pierre Bouillet Martial Kouamé Mé Samuel Yamoah Kyei Laurent Saint-André 《Forest Ecology and Management》2008
Studies on stem profile of teak (Tectona grandis) hardly exist. This can be possibly attributed to the occurrence of forks that is prevalent on teak trees. Stem profile model was therefore developed for teak in West Africa, which took into account the occurrence of forks. Trees were destructively sampled from Moist Evergreen Forest (MEF), Moist Semi-deciduous Forest (MSDF), Dry Semi-deciduous Forest (DSDF) and Savannah ecological zones in both Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire for the study. A single set of parameters could be used explicitly to predict stem profile of any teak tree, irrespective of country, eco-climatic zone, edaphic variables, site index, tree age, stand density and tree competition. The model efficiency and root mean square error (in relative diameter) were calculated to be 0.97 and 0.053, respectively. The relative position of the forks along the stem bole, with respect to total tree height, was highly variable and did not follow any particular trend, except higher value for the first fork in the Moist Evergreen Forest zone. However, average tree height to the first fork decreased along the ecological gradient from MEF, MSDF and DSDF to Savannah. The extent of diameter reduction due to the forks could be predicted. Relative tree form for zero-forked, one-forked and two-forked trees was calculated to be 0.39, 0.36 and 0.33, respectively. Relative loss of stem volume due to one fork and two forks was estimated to be 6.5 and 13.9%, respectively. The measured stem volume when related to the corresponding predicted value yielded coefficient and intercept not significantly different from unity and zero, respectively, with an r2 value of 0.97. 相似文献
19.
Sławomir Wilczyński 《European Journal of Forest Research》2006,125(3):213-219
Using eight populations of Scots pine growing in foothills of the Sudetes (southern Poland) as an example, the character and causes of annual ring variation in 1900–1999 were studied. The climate had a short-term effect on radial growth during the whole period investigated. A long-term decrease of radial growth occurred after 1960, but only in some localities. It was probably caused by non-climatic factors, most likely by industrial pollution. The decline of trees during that period is mainly evidenced by a high variation of width of annual rings, a small similarity of chronologies of annual ring widths, and a lack of signal years. After 1990, the tree recovery process was evident. It was most intensive in localities where the earlier stress was the most severe. Then, trees started to produce wide annual rings, homogeneity of the growth reaction increased, and the signal years began to occur. 相似文献
20.
Mirela Tulik 《European Journal of Forest Research》2014,133(5):845-855
Oaks’ decline in vitality is attributed to a complex process that involves interactions of several factors leading to increased trees’ mortality. This study investigates the structure of trunk wood of oaks with reference to its physiological role in hydraulic conductivity. On the basis of the crown condition, the oaks were classified into three health groups: healthy trees, declining trees and dead trees. Anatomical traits of wood, such as annual ring width, vessel density, vessel diameter of earlywood and theoretical hydraulic conductivity, were measured and calculated. The narrowest annual rings formed by the cambium were observed in dead oaks. These trees were also characterized by the smallest diameter of earlywood vessels, not only in the period of occurrence of dieback symptoms, but also during their whole life. It is suggested that the formation of narrow annual rings and earlywood vessels of small diameter increases susceptibility of a tree to decay. A reduced vessel diameter implies changes in hydraulic conductivity of oak trunks and thus impairs the water transport, which affects the health of trees. The process of oak decline is considered to have characteristics of natural selection and leads to the elimination of the weakest trees. 相似文献