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1.

The incidence of recent moose browsing of the main stem on young Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) trees, and correlations with tree or stand characteristics, were examined using data from a large-scale survey in Sweden. On average, 10% of all Scots pine main stems showed one or more types of recent damage, with browsing of the apical leader accounting for about 75% of all damage recorded. Stripping of bark off the main stem occurred most frequently in the southern area, where site productivity is highest. Apical leader browsing was negatively correlated with height of the main stems, length of the apical leader and incidence of pre-commercial thinning, whereas bark stripping and stem breaking were positively correlated with the same variables. All types of recent stem damage correlated positively with the extent of previous stem damage and also with the extent of recent browsing of lateral shoots.  相似文献   

2.
Silvicultural cleaning is commonly carried out in young stands to control competition between conifers and deciduous tree species. However, it has been questioned whether this practice affects moose (Alces alces L.) browsing on Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) with respect to damage at the stand level. In this study, moose winter browsing was examined in relation to food availability in 19 Scots pine stands divided into silviculturally cleaned and non‐cleaned blocks. Cleaning had a negative effect on moose foraging in terms of reduced density, biomass availability, and height of the deciduous tree species. The total biomass consumed by moose was significantly lower on the cleaned blocks than on the non‐cleaned ones. There were no differences between the treatments in the amounts of pine consumed and in moose damage to pines. The density or biomass available of different deciduous tree species did not explain the variation in moose browsing on pine. In conclusion, timing of silvicultural cleaning with reference to moose browsing should be taken into account. If pines are not overtopped by deciduous trees, as in the present study, silvicultural cleaning is not necessary to prevent moose damage.  相似文献   

3.

In Scandinavia, moose (Alces alces L.) sometimes cause severe browsing damage to economically-important pine. Moose-vehicle accidents have spurred construction of fences along roads, and these may interfere with moose migration between summer and winter ranges, or the road alone may be a barrier. If this happens and moose build up along roads, landowners may suffer economically. Therefore, this study investigated whether roads, fences or other factors influence the use of young pine stands by moose. Eighty stands along roads in northern Sweden were evaluated in which individually-browsed branches were counted on 9972 pines. Moose browsing was not significantly related to birch (Betula pendula Roth, B. pubescens Ehrh.) density, nor did it differ between pines (Pinus contorta Douglas or P. sylvestris L.). However, increased pine density, site productivity and proximity to a highway were associated with increased browsing. Further large-scale studies are needed to understand moose habitat selection and the effects of roads.  相似文献   

4.
Abstract

The effect of different cleaning treatments on moose (Alces alces L.) damage to Scots pines (Pinus sylvestris L.) was examined using a generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) with a binomial response (logit-link function). The treatments were the following: no cleaning, point-cleaning of broadleaves (mainly birch, Betula pendula Roth and B. pubescens Ehrh.) within a radius of 1 m from the pine, point-cleaning delayed 2 years, topping of competing broadleaves (main stem cut at a height of 1.3 m) and total cleaning of broadleaves. A randomized complete block design with three replicates was established in three planted pine stands (mean height of pines 1.5 m). Measurements taken four growing seasons later (mean height of pines 3.5 m) showed that all cleaning treatments reduced moose damage, although the difference was not significant (p=0.078) in the case of topping. The proportion of damaged pines was predicted as a function of the characteristics of pines and broadleaves in two untreated, planted pine stands with a height of 3 m. Within these untreated stands the number of damaged pines increased in plots with a higher number of broadleaves and taller broadleaves. In conclusion, the results show that on relatively fertile growing sites of pine cleaning treatments reduced moose damage on pine. It is recommended that cleaning is performed before broadleaved trees occur as overgrowth above pines.  相似文献   

5.
Bark stripping by moose (Alces alces L.) on young Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) was studied at the Grimsö Wildlife Research Area in south‐central Sweden. The investigation was launched to attempt to elucidate the underlying mechanism(s) for this behaviour. To document the seasonal pattern of bark stripping by moose, four young Scots pine plantations were observed between August 1988 and November 1989. In addition, pine bark samples were collected systematically throughout the study period, and the composition of various nutrients, minerals, and fibre fractions and their digestibility were determined. The occurrence of bark stripping was significantly higher in April and May, coinciding with an increase in fibre, K, starch and total carbohydrate concentrations, and decreasing crude protein, P and Mg content. Results are discussed with respect to the potential relationship between bark stripping and nutrient deficiencies in moose and the potential mechanisms inducing bark stripping.  相似文献   

6.
Diplodia pinea (syn. Sphaeropsis sapinea), a common pathogenic fungus, causes considerable damage in Italy, particularly to pine stands in which trees are subjected to environmental stress. The occurrence of D. pinea in symptomless Pinus nigra shoots was investigated and related to the amount of radiation received by the trees growing on a site in a year, expressed as the Normalized Insolation index (NIi). Twenty‐seven pines were selected from nine locations in Trentino (northern Italy). For each pine the incidence of the fungus in apparently healthy shoots was determined by both culturing on an agar medium and application of real‐time PCR. The incidence of D. pinea determined by culturing samples taken from asymptomatic trees was 59% (16 of 27 trees), compared with 85% found using real‐time PCR (23 of 27 trees). Detection of the pathogen in healthy pine tissue was positively correlated (p < 0.05) with the NIi values, using both detection methods.  相似文献   

7.
There is little knowledge how ungulate pressure on forest regeneration may be mitigated by silvicultural methods. The knowledge is especially needed for artificially regenerated, deciduous tree species. We studied factors affecting browsing incidence by deer in the Pisz Forest District in Poland, an area where 10,000 ha of forest was damaged by a 2002 hurricane. In 2006, we established three experimental plots (in total, 22.6 ha), in which the main species was Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) admixed with pedunculate oak (Quercus robur). The data on browsing were collected in 2008–2015. In general, oak browsing incidence was unrelated to oak planting density. On a plantation scale, it was significantly affected by the pine age. Although in each variant all the oaks were browsed for four consecutive years (2009–2012), in 2013 browsing incidence began to decrease. When the pines grew higher and formed a physical barrier, it was harder for deer—roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), red deer (Cervus elaphus) and moose (Alces alces)—to move through and locate the oaks. Moreover, within plantations, oak browsing incidence was higher in the patches with shorter pines. Browsing of individual saplings or small groups of saplings was also negatively affected by the height of neighbouring pine saplings. Oak density influenced deer selectivity depending on the tree height. In a low oak tree density, browsing incidence was unrelated to oak height, while in higher tree density, deer selected oaks of the height between 40 and 100 cm. We postulate that deciduous admixture in a coniferous (unattractive) stand can be planted with a few year delay. Older coniferous trees should impede locating of attractive tree species by deer and the browsing incidence.  相似文献   

8.
Forest management strongly influences the interactions between ungulates and their food resources. Different ungulate-adapted measures have been proposed in forestry to improve forage availability or to reduce browsing damage. However, the potential and feasibility of such measures are inadequately known. We studied the effects of harvest timing and slash treatment in final felling and commercial thinning on the availability of Scots pine Pinus sylvestris forage and its use by ungulates during winter in the Swedish boreal forests. Pellet group counts showed that moose (Alces alces) was the dominating species using the post-harvest stands. Under conventional slash treatment, final felling stands held on average 226 kg pine forage ha?1 after harvesting and commercial thinning stands 137 kg ha?1. Ungulate-adapted slash treatment increased the available forage biomass by 20 %, but had no significant effect on consumption of forage by ungulates. Time since harvest had the strongest effect on forage consumption; for example, under conventional slash treatment, there was a tenfold increase in consumption (3 vs. 33 kg ha?1) following final felling as exposure time increased from 2–3 to 4–5 months. Consumption was higher in thinned stands than in final felling stands for the first 3 months but not later. To increase ungulate use of the forage made available at harvest, pine-dominated stands should be harvested in the late autumn or early in the winter.  相似文献   

9.
The consumption of the pine needles and the stripping of bark by sheep grazing annual pastures in three open stands of P. radiata and one of P. pinaster were measured. The P. radiata were four years old and the densities were 250, 500 and 750 trees ha-1. The P. pinaster included two, three and four year-old trees and the density was 440 trees ha–1.Needles were eaten immediately after the sheep were admitted and this continued throughout the year. Within ten weeks of the start of winter grazing, sheep stocked at 7–10 ha–1 had eaten about half of the accessible needles on both species where densities were less than500 trees ha–1. The estimated consumption was about 260 g sheep–1 day–1 for the P. radiata. Bark stripping then commenced and continued throughout spring and summer on most plots. In some plots at low tree density, bark was stripped from more than 35% of the trees. In denser stands, needle consumption per tree was less and bark was stripped from less than 5% of the trees.Bark damage was most common on the smaller trees, and severity of stripping was negatively correlated with tree size. Of all the trees with bark damage, 22% of the P. pinaster and 14% of the P. radiata had more than half of the stem circumference stripped. A number of these will probably suffer both stem distortion and growth retardation, and some may die.Methods of reducing the incidence of bark damage are discussed.  相似文献   

10.
Model computations were made on the critical combination of snow loading and windspeed for snow damage of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies Karst.) and birch sp. (Betula sp.) at the newly formed stand edge with varying tree height and stem taper using the model developed by H. Peltola, S. Kellomäki and H. Väisänen (1996, HWIND: A Mechanistic Model for Wind and Snow Damage of Scotts Pine, Norway Spruce and Birch sp.) for the mechanism of wind and snow damage. In the computations, the total turning moment arising from the wind and snow load and from the bending of stem and crown was calculated along with the breaking stress of the stem and root anchorage. Windspeed variation within the crown and the vertical distribution of snow, stem and crown weight were also taken into account.According to computations, the critical combination of snow and wind loading for stem breakage and uprooting of trees was caused mainly by accumulation of snow on tree crowns, rather than by wind, which did, however, increase the risk of damage. The risk of damage increased along with stem taper decrease or tree height increase for all tree species studied. However, Scots pine and Norway spruce were found much more susceptible to snow damage than birch, which (being leafless) had much less crown area for snow attachment and wind loading.The trees most likely to suffer stem breakage were slightly tapering Scots pines and Norway spruces with tapers of 1:120 for varying tree heights of 12–20 m under short-term snow loading of 60 kg m−2, i.e. they would have suffered stem breakage under windspeeds of less than 9 m s−1 above the tree canopy top. Respectively, even Scots pine and Norway spruce with tapers of 1:100 were at risk of stem breakage through sustained snow loading of 60 kg m−2. In addition, even snow loads of 20–40 kg m−2 were found big enough to cause stem breakage of these trees with stem tapers of 1:120 during sustained snow loading. Correspondingly, similar pines and spruces with stem tapers of 1:120 were found to even more liable to be uprooted during conditions of unfrozen soil than of having their stem broken by short-term snow loading of 20–60 kg m−2, i.e. less windspeed was needed to cause uprooting. However, pines and spruces with tapers of 1:80 were not at risk for stem breakage and uprooting. This was because snow would have more probably been dislodged from the tree crowns by windspeeds greater than 9 ms−1 which are needed to worsen the damage. Nor would very slender birch without leaves have suffered stem breakage or uprooting under any circumstances with windspeeds of less than 9 ms−1.  相似文献   

11.
Several heavy wet snowfalls occurred during 2007-2009 across a broad-scale thinning and fertilization experiment to bring overstocked juvenile lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) in the foothills of Alberta, Canada into an intensive management regime. We examined the bending and breakage of trees in relation to thinning and fertilization and used a multimodel information-theoretic approach to model stand and tree level predictors of snow damage. Fertilized stands suffered the greatest amount of snow damage, and this was most noteworthy when stands were also thinned; here 22% (17% broken stems) of trees were damaged compared to 8% (4% broken stems) in the thinned and unfertilized stands. At the stand level, needle weight and crown cover were reliable predictors of snow damage. At the tree level, separate models were developed for each combination of thinning and fertilization. All models used total tree volume; usually the smaller trees in the stands were more susceptible to damage but in the thinned and fertilized stands larger but slender trees with large asymmetrical crowns tended to be damaged. Also, trees with lower total stem volume were more susceptible to damage. Only in the thinned and fertilized stands were variables related to crown shape and asymmetry important predictors of snow damage. We conclude that snow damage is an important agent for self-thinning in unthinned stands and fertilization tends to exacerbate damage because of increase in foliage size. In areas with regular occurrence of heavy snow, we do not recommend fertilization at the same time as thinning, as the larger and more economically important trees in the stand are at risk.  相似文献   

12.
Abstract

An extensive literature is available on browsing preference for certain tree species. However, useful predictive tools for estimating the impact of deer on forests production and biodiversity can still be improved. A step in that direction is not only to rank preference among tree species but also to quantify the relative risk of being browsed. The foraging selectivity of moose was evaluated using three different statistical methods developed to study habitat utilization. The general pattern for the three methods was consistent. From the results, groups of forage species were clustered and a quantitative index of selectivity was calculated for the groups. The selectivity index showed that rowan (Sorbus aucuparia), willow (Salix ssp.) and aspen (Populus tremula) had a 14 times higher probability of being browsed than a group consisting of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and downy birch (Betula pubescens), while juniper (Juniperus communis) and silver birch (Betula pendula) had a 3.5 times higher probability than Scots pine and downy birch. Since the most preferred species were the least abundant, one should be cautious about the generality of the index between areas, as it may indicate that preference depends on plant species composition. The method used can easily be applied in forest management. Information on quantitative selectivity indices may improve the possibility of managing moose in accordance with acceptable browsing damage.  相似文献   

13.

Reducing competition by point cleaning may be an attractive alternative to conventional precommercial thinning in forestry. In this study, survival and development of main stems of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) following point cleaning were examined in a mixed stand of mainly Scots pine and birch (Betula pendula Roth and Betula pubescens Ehrh.) in northern Sweden. Treatments studied were: no precommercial thinning, conventional precommercial thinning, point cleaning of all secondary stems, and point cleaning of only the secondary stems that were higher than the main stem, within a radius of 0.8 m from the main stem, respectively. A randomised complete block design with three replicates was used. Measurements taken 13 growing seasons after these treatments showed that conventional precommercial thinning was the best treatment for retaining Scots pines as main stems. However, conventional precommercial thinning resulted in the poorest timber quality of the remaining Scots pines in terms of stem taper, thickest branch diameter and relative live crown height. In conclusion, point cleaning has to be followed by a complementary cleaning operation if the objective is to retain Scots pines as main stems in such mixed stands.  相似文献   

14.
We compared the degree of browsing by moose on 30 clones of Scots pine with the concentrations of mono‐ and diterpenes in their needles. The pine clones originated from 11 Swedish and one Norwegian locality within the latitudes 61–69° N. They were grown in a nursery in northern Sweden, close to 63° N, and were accidently exposed to moose during one winter. The relative amount of twig biomass removed differed significantly between clones. No statistically significant correlation was found between monoterpene concentrations in the needles and degree of moose browsing. For the diterpene pinifolic acid, however, there was a significant negative correlation.  相似文献   

15.
Four treatments (control, burn-only, thin-only, and thin-and-burn) were evaluated for their effects on bark beetle-caused mortality in both the short-term (one to four years) and the long-term (seven years) in mixed-conifer forests in western Montana, USA. In addition to assessing bark beetle responses to these treatments, we also measured natural enemy landing rates and resin flow of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) the season fire treatments were implemented. All bark beetles were present at low population levels (non-outbreak) for the duration of the study. Post-treatment mortality of trees due to bark beetles was lowest in the thin-only and control units and highest in the units receiving burns. Three tree-killing bark beetle species responded positively to fire treatments: Douglas-fir beetle (Dendroctonus pseudotsugae), pine engraver (Ips pini), and western pine beetle (Dendroctonus brevicomis). Red turpentine beetle (Dendroctonus valens) responded positively to fire treatments, but never caused mortality. Three fire damage variables tested (height of crown scorch, percent circumference of the tree bole scorched, or degree of ground char) were significant factors in predicting beetle attack on trees. Douglas-fir beetle and pine engraver responded rapidly to increased availability of resources (fire-damaged trees); however, successful attacks dropped rapidly once these resources were depleted. Movement to green trees by pine engraver was not observed in plots receiving fire treatments, or in thinned plots where slash supported substantial reproduction by this beetle. The fourth tree-killing beetle present at the site, the mountain pine beetle, did not exhibit responses to any treatment. Natural enemies generally arrived at trees the same time as host bark beetles. However, the landing rates of only one, Medetera spp., was affected by treatment. This predator responded positively to thinning treatments. This insect was present in very high numbers indicating a regulatory effect on beetles, at least in the short-term, in thinned stands. Resin flow decreased from June to August. However, resin flow was significantly higher in trees in August than in June in fire treatments. Increased flow in burned trees later in the season did not affect beetle attack success. Overall, responses by beetles to treatments were short-term and limited to fire-damaged trees. Expansions into green trees did not occur. This lack of spread was likely due to a combination of high tree vigor in residual stands and low background populations of bark beetles.  相似文献   

16.
The objective of this study was to compare the survival and volume of conifer stands at 26 years of age with their status at planting. Survival, growth and damage were studied in eight clear felled stands regenerated in 1972. Five of the areas were planted with Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and three with Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). The plantings were examined in 1972 and 1974. In 1974, the number of living undamaged planted seedlings was low (10–15%). However, the number of undamaged seedlings was supplemented by naturally regenerated conifer and birch seedlings. The total number of undamaged seedling in 1974 was equivalent to 20–30% of the number of seedlings planted. In 1998, the main species in three stands had changed from Norway spruce to Scots pine, and in one stand from Norway spruce to birches. Actual volume in 1998 for the stands was compared to stand volume generate according to five scenarios based on recommended and actual seedling number in 1972 and 1974. The actual volume was 64% of that expected if the recommended number of trees had been planted. Naturally regenerated Scots pine and Norway spruce increased stand density in 1998. The actual volume was 37% higher than the average volume in the surrounding county. On average, 36% of the trees were damaged. More than 50% of the total damage was caused by moose (Alces alces L.). For Scots pine, moose or other browsing animals damaged 30% of the trees. The results of this study indicate that the 1998 volume was higher than expected, considering the low number of undamaged seedlings in 1974. This was mainly due to the large amount of naturally regenerated plants. In addition, the results indicate that the volume could have been higher if the initial conditions had been better. Despite the low number of undamaged seedlings in 1974, seven of the eight studied stands produced a higher volume than the average stand for the region. In practise, high numbers of seedlings should be planted on scarified areas. In most cases there will be a supply of naturally regenerated seedlings.  相似文献   

17.
Timber quality and logging damage after different thinning types in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands were studied in a field experiment in north Sweden. Thinning operations were mechanized and carried out according to normal Swedish practise. The treatments were thinning from below and thinning from above. The quality of the residual stand was evaluated using variables such as diameter of the thickest branch, stem taper, annual ring width, straightness and lean of trees. The only variables showing differences between treatments were lean of tree and stem straightness. No difference in the frequency of trees with logging damage was found. The conclusion of this study is that differences between thinning types in first thinning may be evened out when carried out as in commercial forestry due to extraction of strip road and damaged trees. Consequently, differences in timber quality and logging damage in the residual stand may be small.  相似文献   

18.
萧氏松茎象幼虫食性、危害及防治技术   总被引：24，自引：2，他引：24  
萧氏松茎象幼虫在南岳衡山主要危害华山松，在寄主树干基部皮层和裸露的根皮层蛀食，造成大量流脂，导致生长衰弱，引起松墨天牛暴发；同时取食新鲜松脂，越冬后的幼虫仅靠取食新鲜松脂就能正常发育。幼虫只危害健康松树，不危害衰弱木、枯立木，说明其蛀食危害与松树能否分泌松脂有关。在被害松林内，单株幼虫数在0～6头之间。幼虫在有虫株之问分布较均匀，1头／株的占82．5％，平均为1．38头／株，且单株虫口密度与树干基部直径呈明显正相关。混交林和非松树林分能阻止该虫扩散。5—10月间在幼虫危害期和蛹期，采用人工清除幼虫和蛹的方法可有效控制该虫危害，而采用化学药剂防治该幼虫，效果不明显。  相似文献   

19.
We carried out this study to clarify the relationships between the seasonal changes of bark stripping and food quality, and between bark-stripping intensity and bark nutrition with age of veitch fir (Abies veitchii) by sika deer (Cervus nippon) in the northern Mount Fuji district, from June 2000 to July 2003. We found that sika deer gnawed and ate all of the bark stripped, and a seasonal change in bark stripping occurred from December to May or June with a peak in March–April. The stripping period largely overlapped with the periods of low food availability and poor food nutrition (indicated by fecal chemical component index) of sika deer, from January to April. Both bark nutritional quality and bark-stripping intensity related to stand age and tree size of veitch fir negatively. Consequently, bark-stripping intensity related to bark nutritional quality positively. February is the worst forage period in terms of both quantity (due to deep snow) and quality (indicated by fecal chemical components). There was a time lag of 1 to 2 months in the peak of bark stripping in March–April when compared with the poor forage period in February. This time lag may suggest that sika deer need more nutritious and easily digested food from March due to increased nutrient demands that result from depleted body condition in both sexes, gestation of pregnant females, and the recovery of active metabolism.  相似文献   

20.
Forest thinnings implemented with cut-to-length and whole-tree harvesting systems followed by underburning were evaluated for their effects on bark beetle prevalence in pure, uneven-aged Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi Grev. & Balf.) interspersed with isolated California white fir (Abies concolor var. lowiana [Gord.] Lemm.). Based on pitch tube counts in a stand with a moderate bark beetle population in its pine component, the Jeffrey pine beetle (Dendroctonus jeffreyi Hopkins) generally preferred larger trees before treatment implementation, but after exhibiting mixed pretreatment tendencies concerning stand density demonstrated a posttreatment proclivity toward higher density. Cut-to-length thinning followed by underburning increased the pine beetle population while whole-tree thinning unaccompanied by burning reduced it. Tree mortality was induced by the bark beetle infestation but was not its sole cause. Pitch tube abundance on white fir far exceeded that on Jeffrey pine, and the greatest influence on the fir engraver (Scolytus ventralis LeConte) population was the prevalence of its host tree. The responses presented herein to these thinning and burning practices, which are being increasingly utilized in forest restoration efforts in the western USA, provide natural resource managers insight into potential forest health outcomes when implemented in Jeffrey pine and similar dry site forest types.  相似文献   

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