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1.
Abstract –  The size of wild Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar L.) smolts in 1972–2004 was studied in relation to parr density, smolt age, growth opportunity and postsmolt survival in the Simojoki River. There was a significant negative regression between the annual mean smolt size and the density of wild >1 year parr in the previous autumn, but not between the annual mean smolt size and age. The density of reared parr released into the river or the growth opportunity, based on the day length and air temperature during the previous summer, did not affect the size of wild smolts. The data on postsmolt survival based on recaptures of Carlin-tagged smolts showed a significant positive relationship ( P  < 0.01) between the survival of postsmolts and the annual size of wild smolts. It is hypothesised that the increased density of wild >1 year parr could have contributed to the decreased smolt size since the 1990s, and the reduced size of wild smolts could be included among the factors resulting in their declined postsmolt survival in the Baltic Sea.  相似文献   

2.
Smolt lengths are increasingly recognised as an important determinant of salmonid marine survival rates. Overwintering growth rates could thus strongly influence adult return rates. In Atlantic salmon Salmo salar, most overwintering studies focus on rivers in harsh climates with minimal growth, yet in more southerly rivers, overwintering growth rates can be relatively high. Here, the factors influencing annual overwinter growth rates were tested for juvenile S. salar in a temperate chalk stream in southern England over 13 years, where over 10,000 salmon parr were tagged annually in autumn and a proportion recaptured the following spring during smolt emigration. Winters of higher and more variable water temperatures, with longer periods of high flows, showed increased overwintering growth rates. Faster growth rates were recorded from sites further upstream and that had lower parr densities; smaller individuals also grew more than expected for their initial size. These results suggest that a range of factors influences overwintering salmonid growth rates and can be used to inform management decisions to maximise the quality of emigrating smolts.  相似文献   

3.
Abstract The timing of the smolt run in the Dale River in western Norway was monitored from 2002 to 2007 after annual stocking in late autumn 2000 to 2005 with 5000–10800, 11–16 g, Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., parr. The releases yielded an annual smolt production of 1000–2000 individuals, mainly 1+ smolts. Almost 5700 stocked smolts were trapped during smolt migration and 60% of these were genotyped for family identification. The date for 50% descent varied by 14 days from year to year. For the most part, however, the 2+ stocked smolts and the majority of the wild smolts left the river in May, while the 1+ stocked smolts migrated 23–26 days later in June. It was concluded that the strategy of stocking large parr in late autumn may conflict with the natural timing of smolt migration the following spring.  相似文献   

4.
Wild salmon (Salmo salar) parr and smolt were forced to swim against constant flow (50 cm.s–1) for 8 hours. Physiological properties describing the hormonal status, the energy metabolism and the ionic and osmotic balance of fish were measured from the fish prior to and at the end of the swimming test.Plasma cortisol levels were elevated in response to enforced swimming; the response of the smolt was clearly greater than that of the parr. Plasma thyroxine concentration increased in the parr but stayed at the initial level in the smolts. The parr consumed much of their coelomic fat, but the glycogen stores stayed nearly constant. The smolts had very low fat stores, and the glycogen stores were depleted in the test. The ionic and osmotic balance of the parr was stable in the test, but in smolts, the plasma Cl–1 and osmotic concentrations decreased and muscle moisture increased.The results indicate that downstream migration smolts have markedly lower physiological capacity for continuous swimming than parr.  相似文献   

5.
Obtaining reliable estimates of marine survival is essential for understanding anadromous salmon population dynamics. Two common approaches to estimating marine survival are (a) dividing abundance of returning adult salmon abundance by abundance of smolts from the same cohort, or (b) tagging a portion of the migrating smolts and estimating the return rate of tagged adults. This study compared these two approaches to estimating marine survival for coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch (Walbaum), across multiple years in three California streams. Abundance‐based survival estimates were higher than tag‐based estimates; average estimates for the two techniques differed from 1.5‐fold to 7.4‐fold across streams. One likely cause for these divergent estimates is migration of juveniles from natal habitat before smolt trapping begins, resulting in an underestimate of smolt abundance and an overestimate of marine survival rate for the abundance‐based method. Estimates of marine survival obtained from abundance estimates and tag returns are not directly comparable.  相似文献   

6.
After entering saline water coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch parr often cease to grow (stunt) and many stunts eventually die. Stunted coho parr occurred in an experimental wastewater-seawater smolt production system constructed in 1971 on the northern arm of Humboldt Bay, Arcata, California, USA. In 1991 many stunted parr (1990 brood) were noted during transfer of juveniles from a 0.02-ha shaded pond used for summer rearing (July-December) to a 0.15-ha unshaded pond used in winter-spring rearing (January-May). The cohort suffered a 42% mortality during summer rearing in low salinity water (7 ppt) but deaths due to stunting could not be estimated. When the summer parr were transferred for winter rearing to 15 ppt salinity water, a total mortality of 15% was nearly all related to stunting. A small sample of stunted, but otherwise normal-appearing, parr found in smolt out-migrant traps was retained for an additional year of rearing (February 1992—January 1993). There was a 29% survival in these stunts, with survivors attaining an average fork length of 16 cm (range 12–21 cm). The survivors exhibited parr, pre-smolt, and "smolt-like" external appearances. Five groups of 1990-brood smolts were released into Humboldt Bay. They had rates of return to their point-of-release (South Pond) similar to other brood years released from the Arcata ponds and other northern California hatcheries. This suggested that whatever produced stunting in the 1990 brood acted independently of endocrinological or physiological factors that produce mortalities in smolts after entering saline water.  相似文献   

7.
The downstream movement of coho salmon fry and parr in the fall, as distinct from the spring migration of smolts, has been well documented across the range of the species. In many cases, these fish overwinter in freshwater, but they sometimes enter marine waters. It has long been assumed that these latter fish did not survive to return as adults and were ‘surplus’ to the stream's carrying capacity. From 2004 to 2010, we passive integrated transponder tagged 25,981 juvenile coho salmon in three streams in Washington State to determine their movement, survival and the contribution of various juvenile life histories to the adult escapement. We detected 86 returning adults, of which 32 originated from fall/winter migrants. Half of these fall/winter migrants spent ~1 year in the marine environment, while the other half spent ~2 years. In addition, the median return date for fall/winter migrants was 16 days later than spring migrants. Our results indicated that traditional methods of spring‐only smolt enumeration may underestimate juvenile survival and total smolt production, and also overestimate spring smolt‐to‐adult return (SAR). These are important considerations for coho salmon life cycle models that assume juvenile coho salmon have a fixed life history or use traditional parr‐to‐smolt and SAR rates.  相似文献   

8.
Tissue lipid content and lipolytic enzyme activity was determined in selected tissues of coho salmon,Oncorhynchus kisutch, at various developmental stages (freshwater parr, freshwater smolt, seawater smolt, and seawater stunt) and in tissues of coho salmon and chinook salmon,O. tshawytscha, exposed to seawater periodically during smoltification. Among developmental groups, total lipid concentration of liver and dark muscle was highest in freshwater (FW) parr. Lipid concentration in both liver and dark muscle was significantly lower in FW smolts, seawater (SW) smolts and SW stunts; no difference was observed among these groups. Alterations in lipid composition were reflected in depot triacylglycerol lipase activity. FW smolts, SW smolts and SW stunts displayed significantly higher lipase activity than FW parr in each of the tissues examined (live, dark muscle and mesenteric fat). Early in smoltification (March, April), exposure to seawater results in enhanced lipid depletion from liver, dark muscle and mesenteric fat, both 30 and 60 days after exposure, compared to FW controls. This depletion was accompanied by increased liver (March and April) dark muscle (March) and mesenteric fat (March) lipase activity. Later in smoltification (May), salinity-induced alterations in lipid metabolism were not observed. These results indicate that exposure to seawater stimulates lipid depletion in juvenile salmon and that the depletion can be explained, in part, by increased depot lipase activity. Furthermore, these data confirm that metabolic dysfunction is associated with stunting.  相似文献   

9.
Abstract –  The timing of the smolt migration of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., was investigated during 1972–2002 in the Simojoki, a river flowing into the northern Baltic Sea. The onset of the smolt run was positively correlated with the river water temperature; a rise in water temperature above 10 °C being the main proximate environmental triggering factor. There was also a weaker correlation between the decreasing river discharge in the spring and the onset of the smolt migration. The duration of the main run was shorter in the years when the onset of the smolt run was delayed. No differences were found in the onset timing or in the duration of the smolt run between wild smolts and semi-wild smolts released into the river as parr. A polynomial equation fitted to the annual data on the survival of Carlin-tagged wild smolts and the sea surface temperature (SST) in June off the river mouth appeared to follow a dome-shaped pattern. Survival was lower in cold early summers (SST <9 °C) than in those with an average SST (9–11.9 °C), and lower again, although not significantly, in warm early summers (SST ≥12 °C). Too low and probably also too a high water temperature in early summer could thus be one of the underlying reasons for the fluctuations observed in postsmolt survival in the Baltic Sea.  相似文献   

10.
Abstract –  Downstream movement of a wild population of brown trout was examined in a small Danish stream in relation to morphological and physiological smolt status from March to May. Downstream movement was monitored in a Wolf-type trap covering all possible passage routes in the stream. Trout caught in the trap were classified as parr, pre-smolt or smolt based on morphological criteria and compared with trout randomly caught by electrofishing upstream of the trap. Representative gill samples from trap-caught and electrofished trout were analysed for gill Na+, K+-ATPase activity and used as a measure of physiological smolt status. Only a few parr occurred in the trap. Few pre-smolts occurred in the trap evenly in March and early April. In late April, pre-smolt movement peaked. By comparison, the main downstream movement of smolts occurred in distinct peaks through late March and April. The majority of fish caught in the trap were judged as pre-smolts or smolts based on morphological criteria's and they were characterised by relatively high gill Na+, K+-ATPase activity compared with trout judged as parr. Trout caught by electrofishing upstream the trap, were classified as parr, pre-smolts and smolts early in the season (March). During and after the main smolt-run in April the distribution of the remaining trout in the brook became skewed in favour of pre-smolt and parr. The study suggests that smolting trout initiate downstream movement once having reached a certain physiological smolt condition (judged by increased gill Na+, K+-ATPase activity).  相似文献   

11.
The River Bush (Northern Ireland) is an index river for the estimation of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., stock size, population dynamics and marine survival rates. Marine survival estimates are based on the number of smolts counted at a trap 3.5 km upstream of the river outlet. The survival from release to coastal inshore waters for acoustic‐tagged smolts released at the Bushmills trap varied between 32% and 68%, with both year and brightness during river exit playing a significant role in explaining the variations in survival. This constitutes an important survival bottleneck. Contrary to true marine mortality, this significant loss of smolts in the river and nearshore environments could be reduced by focused management actions. More studies on other rivers, where smolts are enumerated above the head of tide, could further partition smolt and post‐smolt mortality, help differentiate true marine survival and help understand fluctuations in adult returns.  相似文献   

12.
Size‐dependent growth (SDG) is an important process in structuring populations as well as determining life history outcomes. Despite its importance, there have been few investigations from observational studies focusing on the interaction between life history decisions and SDG. In this study, we used data on individually tagged Atlantic salmon from both the laboratory and the field to investigate differences in SDG among two life history groups, parr and smolts. In the laboratory, we found little evidence of SDG in parr but seasonally dependent SDG in the smolt group. Smolts showed at strong compensatory response over the winter months just prior to the smolt transformation window. In the field, we found little evidence of SDG early in ontogeny (i.e., age 0+ fall and winter). There was some evidence of depensatory growth (positive SDG) during the age 1+ spring among both life history groups that may reflect random habitat variation or the monopolisation of resources. After the age 1+ spring, we found that smolts were more likely to show a compensatory effect (negative SDG) than parr. This effect was strongest, as they approached the smolt window in the spring of their age 2+ year. These results suggest (i) SDG is common in Atlantic salmon; however, the form and extent of life history depends on (ii) season and (iii) life history. For individuals that adopt a smolt life history, trade‐offs between freshwater survival and sea survival may lead to a convergent growth pattern, as they approach the smolt migration window.  相似文献   

13.
Abstract – The survival of brown trout and Atlantic salmon smolts during passage over small weirs was estimated in two small Danish rivers during the spring of 1998. Parallel groups of smolts were released upstream and downstream of the weirs and recaptured in traps further downstream. The results showed a smolt loss varying from 18 to 71% for trout and 53% for salmon. Furthermore, the surviving smolts from the upstream groups were delayed for up to 9 days compared to downstream groups. The study demonstrated that an increased proportion of total river discharge allocated to fish passage increased the smolt survival. Losses may be because of fish penetrating grids erected at fish farm inlets, predation and delays, which may lead to desmoltification. The low survival may seriously threat both the long-term viability of wild populations of anadromous salmonids and the outcome of the intensive stocking programme in Denmark.  相似文献   

14.
Abstract Habitat mapping along 85 km of river was related to juvenile (15 years of electric fishing) and smolt (3 years of screw‐trapping) abundance data to estimate salmon, Salmo salar L., and sea trout, Salmo trutta L., smolt production in the River Sävarån, northern Sweden. Spawning site selection by radio‐tagged salmon (n = 12) and sea trout (n = 4) was also assessed. Fifty‐one hectares of potential spawning and nursery habitat was found in the main stem river, representing 25% of the total river area. These areas were estimated to yield 1300–7580 salmon and 630–3540 sea trout smolts based on juvenile densities, equating with 3 years of screw‐trap data (2990–5080 salmon and 680–2520 trout smolts, respectively). A hypothetical maximum production of about 19 900 salmon smolts was predicted for the river at a density of 40, 0+ salmon 100 m?2. Tracking adults during the spawning period identified optimal and potential reproductive areas.  相似文献   

15.
The timing of smolt migration is a key phenological trait with profound implications for individual survival during both river descent and the subsequent sea sojourn of anadromous fish. We studied relationships between the time of smolt migration, water temperature and light intensity for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and sea trout (Salmo trutta). During 2006–2012, migrating smolts descending the southern Norway River Storelva were caught in a rotary screw trap located at the river mouth. The date of 50% cumulative smolt descent correlated significantly with the date when the river temperature exceeded 8°C for both Atlantic salmon and sea trout smolts. In 2010, smolts of both species were passive integrated transponder (PIT)‐tagged, and the diel timing of their migration was precisely documented. The degree of night migration decreased in both species as the river temperature rose, and at temperatures above 12–13°C, more smolts migrated during day than during night. A multinomial model was fitted for estimating temperature and species effects on probabilities of migration during night, daytime, dusk and dawn. Atlantic salmon smolts preferred migrating under lower light intensities than sea trout smolts during early, but not late spring when both species migrated during bright daylight. In accordance with the early‐season tendency to migrate at night, Atlantic salmon smolts migrated more during darker hours of the day than sea trout. In both species, smaller smolts migrated under dark conditions than during light conditions. Most of the findings on thermal, light and temporal effects on the observed smolt migration pattern can be explained as adaptations to predation avoidance.  相似文献   

16.
Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., is found throughout the North Atlantic, with thousands of rivers having spawning populations. In Greenland, spawning is limited to one river in West Greenland, the Kapisillit River (64?N), and the salmon are limited to the lower few kilometres of the system. Using mark–recapture, it was estimated the parr population was 5,953 individuals, and that the population size has declined by 52% since 1959. In spite of this decline, parr density remains high, being between 0.26 and 0.62 parr/m2. Using a historical age‐length key, an estimated minimum of 635 smolt will have descended to the sea in 2017. These will be caught in a fishery currently subject to no regulatory measures and fishing remains the most likely driver of the population decline. The genetically distinct population is endemic to Greenland, and managers should implement measures to conserve this genetic integrity and local biodiversity.  相似文献   

17.
Abstract – The objective was to compare juvenile salmon density in 20 streams throughout the very large River Tana, northern Norway, and to relate variation in density to a suite of environmental factors. Four sampling sites were electrofished in each stream (one at the mouth of the stream and three within the stream) in August and October 2000, 2001, 2002. 0+ salmon parr were absent from seven streams, present at the mouth of 11 streams, and present within only two streams, both of which were probably spawning streams. Older parr migrated upstream into most streams and their highest densities were usually found in streams flowing directly into the spawning habitat in the three largest tributaries of the Tana or the river itself. Juvenile salmon were sparse or absent in streams flowing into smaller tributaries. Most streams with high parr densities were those of dense riparian vegetation that provided terrestrial invertebrates as drift food for the salmon parr, cover for fish, cooler stream temperatures in summer, and food for benthic stream invertebrates that were also a source of food for the parr.  相似文献   

18.
The recruitment of anadromous brown trout smolt from a small Baltic stream, frequently exposed to summer drought, was quantified for 9 years, and the effect from drought on smolt number and age composition analysed. Drought was quantified by, (a) a newly developed index quantifying the severity of summer drought (Drought Severity Index—DSI—based on amount of precipitation, monthly mean temperature and number of hours with sun), and (b) the amount of precipitation. Both DSI and precipitation were measured 1 or 2 years prior to emigration. We found highly significant (negative) relations between DSI (1 year before emigration) and both the total number of smolt, and the number of age 1 smolt. In addition, precipitation was (positively) related to total number of smolt, but DSI proved to be a stronger predictor compared to precipitation. In addition to drought, our results support a negative influence from older parr on the survival of age 0 trout. Our results indicate that recruitment of brown trout smolt from streams, regularly affected by summer drought, may be predicted approx. 6 months before the actual emigration the following spring. This offers an opportunity for managers to adapt protective measures in accordance with local and temporal changes in recruitment.  相似文献   

19.
The importance of interspecific competition as a mechanism regulating population abundance in offshore marine communities is largely unknown. We evaluated offshore competition between Asian pink salmon and Bristol Bay (Alaska) sockeye salmon, which intermingle in the North Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea, using the unique biennial abundance cycle of Asian pink salmon from 1955 to 2000. Sockeye salmon growth during the second and third growing seasons at sea, as determined by scale measurements, declined significantly in odd‐numbered years, corresponding to years when Asian pink salmon are most abundant. Bristol Bay sockeye salmon do not interact with Asian pink salmon during their first summer and fall seasons and no difference in first year scale growth was detected. The interaction with odd‐year pink salmon led to significantly smaller size at age of adult sockeye salmon, especially among younger female salmon. Examination of sockeye salmon smolt to adult survival rates during 1977–97 indicated that smolts entering the ocean during even‐numbered years and interacting with abundant odd‐year pink salmon during the following year experienced 26% (age‐2 smolt) to 45% (age‐1 smolt) lower survival compared with smolts migrating during odd‐numbered years. Adult sockeye salmon returning to Bristol Bay from even‐year smolt migrations were 22% less abundant (reduced by 5.9 million fish per year) compared with returns from odd‐year migrations. The greatest reduction in adult returns occurred among adults spending 2 compared with 3 years at sea. Our new evidence for interspecific competition highlights the need for multispecies, international management of salmon production, including salmon released from hatcheries into the ocean.  相似文献   

20.
Abstract  The prevalence of escaped farmed Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., in the River Ewe, western Scotland, was assessed. After the establishment of smolt cages in the catchment and marine cages near the river mouth during 1986–1987, approximately 425 000 parr and smolts, and 122 000 growers have escaped. Between 1987 and 2001, farmed salmon occurred in the rod fishery in 13 of the 15 years, contributing at least 5.8% of the total catch, with a maximum annual frequency of 27.1%. It was estimated that <1% of fish escaping from the marine cages entered the river, but contributed at least 27% of potential anadromous spawners in 1997. Radiotagged, farmed fish in 2001 probably spawned in three subcatchments also used by tagged wild fish. Despite the likelihood of hybridisation there was no change in the median weight or marine age of wild fish, but smolt age decreased significantly ( P  < 0.02). The Ewe has a depleted wild salmon population (≤900 anadromous adults), and further genetic introgression by escapees should be prevented.  相似文献   

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