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1.
Objectives of this study were to understand the physicochemical properties of a novel resistant starch (RS) made by complexing high‐amylose maize starch VII (HA7) with palmitic acid (PA), and its effects on reducing postprandial plasma‐glucose and insulin responses. The HA7 starch was heat‐treated and debranched using isoamylase (ISO) to enhance the starch‐lipid complex formation. The RS content of the HA7 starch debranched with ISO and complexed with PA (HA7+ISO+PA) was 52.7% determined using AOAC Method 991.43 for dietary fiber, which was greater than that of the HA7 control (35.4%). The increase in the RS content of the HA7+ISO+PA sample was attributed to the formation of retrograded debranched‐starch and starch‐lipid complex. The postprandial plasma‐glucose and insulin responses of 20 male human‐subjects after ingesting bread made from 60% (dry basis) HA7+ISO+PA were reduced to 55 and 43%, respectively, when compared with those after ingesting control white bread (as 100%) containing the same amount of total carbohydrates. The results suggested that the HA7+ISO+PA can be used for the interventions of insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome, including diabetes and obesity.  相似文献   

2.
Normal (25% amylose) and high-amylose (70% amylose) corn starches (CS and HA) were hydroxypropylated to 0.1 degree of molar substitution (MS) with propylene oxide in an alkaline-ethanol medium (70% ethanol). CS and hydroxypropylated corn starch (HPCS) were mixed on dry basis with water and glycerol at a weight ratio of 7:2:1, and HA and hydroxypropylated high amylose corn starch (HPHA) were mixed at 7:3:1. Stearic acid, glycerol monostearate, or lecithin (3%, based on starch) was added to each mixture to examine the effects on the physical properties of the extrudate. The starch mixtures were extruded at high shear (100 rpm) to nonexpanded strands using a corotating twin-screw extruder in a temperature range of 75–90°C. HA, alone and with all additives, showed lower die swelling in extrusion than did CS, whereas HPCS and HPHA showed higher die swelling than the corresponding unmodified starches. Water absorption of all HA extrudates was lower than those of all CS extrudates (22–35% and 68–97%, respectively, at 25°C). Hydroxypropylation increased the absorption for both starches. All extruded starches, regardless of additives, showed low solubility in water (0.1–1.0% for 2 hr at 25°C). Differential scanning calorimetry indicated that during extrusion, the lipid additives formed a helical complex with amylose in CS and HA, but weakly with HPCS and HPHA. The extruded strands of HA, alone and with additives, exhibited higher tensile and bending strengths (37.1–58.4 and 2.16–5.07 MPa, respectively), compared to the CS strands (12.5–59.3 and 1.06–4.10 MPa, respectively) at the same moisture content (7.5–8.5%). Both tensile strength and percent of elongation of the starch strands were reduced by the presence of a lipid additive. Hydroxypropylation increased elongation and flexibility of the extrudates. HPHA exhibited the greatest mechanical strength and flexibility among the tested starches.  相似文献   

3.
Resistant starches (RS) were prepared by phosphorylation of wheat, waxy wheat, corn, waxy corn, high‐amylose corn, oat, rice, tapioca, mung bean, banana, and potato starches in aqueous slurry (≈33% starch solids, w/w) with 1–19% (starch basis) of a 99:1 (w/w) mixture of sodium trimetaphosphate (STMP) and sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) at pH 10.5–12.3 and 25–70°C for 0.5–24 hr with sodium sulfate or sodium chloride at 0–20% (starch basis). The RS4 products contain ≤100% dietary fiber when assayed with the total dietary fiber method of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC). In vitro digestion of four RS4 wheat starches showed they contained 13–22% slowly digestible starch (SDS) and 36–66% RS. However after gelatinization, RS levels fell by 7–25% of ungelatinized levels, while SDS levels remained nearly the same. The cross‐linked RS4 starches were distinguished from native starches by elevated phosphorus levels, low swelling powers (≈3g/g) at 95°C, insolubilities (<1%) in 1M potassium hydroxide or 95% dimethyl sulfoxide, and increased temperatures and decreased enthalpies of gelatinization measured by differential scanning calorimetry.  相似文献   

4.
Pup‐loaf bread was made with 10, 30, and 50% substitution of flour with wheat starch phosphate, a cross‐linked resistant starch (XL‐RS4), while maintaining flour protein level at 11.0% (14% mb) by adding vital wheat gluten. Bread with 30% replacement of flour with laboratory‐prepared XL‐RS4 gave a specific volume of 5.9 cm3/g compared with 6.3 g/cm3 for negative control bread (no added wheat starch), and its crumb was 53% more firm than the control bread after 1 day at 25°C, but 13% more firm after 7 days. Total dietary fiber (TDF) in one‐day‐old bread made with commercial XL‐RS4 at 30% flour substitution increased 3–4% (db) in the control to 19.2% (db) in the test bread, while the sum of slowly digestible starch (SDS) plus resistant starch (RS), determined by a modified Englyst method, increased from 24.3 to 41.8% (db). The reference amount (50 g, as‐is) of that test bread would provide 5.5 g of dietary fiber with 10% fewer calories than control bread. Sugar‐snap cookies were made at 30 and 50% flour replacement with laboratory‐prepared XL‐RS4, potato starch, high‐amylose (70%) corn starch, and commercial heat‐moisture‐treated high‐amylose (70%) corn starch. The shape of cookies was affected by the added starches except for XL‐RS4. The reference amount (30 g, as‐is) of cookies made with commercial XL‐RS4 at 30% flour replacement contained 4.3 g (db) TDF and 3.4 g (db) RS, whereas the negative control contained 0.4 g TDF and 0.6 g RS. The retention of TDF in the baked foods containing added XL‐RS4 was calculated to be >80% for bread and 100% for cookies, while the retention of RS was 35–54% for bread and 106–113% for cookies.  相似文献   

5.
Pulse starches were isolated from different cultivars of pea, lentil, and chickpea grown in Canada under identical environmental conditions. The in vitro digestibility and physicochemical properties were investigated and the correlations between the physicochemical properties and starch digestibility were determined. Pulse starch granules were irregularly shaped, ranging from oval to round. The amylose content was 34.9–39.0%. The amount of short A chains (DP 6‐12) of chickpea starch was much higher than the other pulse starches, but the proportions of B1 and B2 chains (DP 13‐24 and DP 25‐36, respectively) were lower. The X‐ray pattern of all starches was of the C type. The relative crystallinity of lentil (26.2–28.3%) was higher than that of pea (24.4–25.5%) and chickpea starches (23.0–24.8%). The swelling factor (SF) in the temperature range 60–90°C followed the order of lentil ≈ chickpea > pea. The extent of amylose leaching (AML) at 60°C followed the order of pea ≈ chickpea > lentil. However, in the temperature range 70–90°C, AML followed the order of lentil > pea > chickpea. The gelatinization temperatures followed the order of lentil > pea > chickpea. The peak viscosity, setback, and final viscosity of pea starch were lower than those of the other starches. Lentil starch exhibited lower rapidly digestible starch (RDS) content, hydrolysis rate, and expected glycemic index (eGI). The resistant starch (RS) content of both lentil cultivars was nearly similar. However, pea and chickpea cultivars exhibited wide variations in their RS content. Digestibility of the pulse starches were significantly correlated (P < 0.05) with swelling factor (60°C), amylose leaching (60°C), gelatinization temperature, gelatinization enthalpy, relative crystallinity, and chain length distribution of amylopectin (A, B1, and B2 chains).  相似文献   

6.
The origin of resistant starch (RS) in distiller's dried grains with solubles (DDGS) of triticale, wheat, barley, and corn from dry‐grind ethanol production was studied. A considerable portion of starch (up to 18% in DDGS) escaped from either granular starch hydrolysis or conventional jet‐cooking and fermentation processes. Confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed that some starch granules were still encapsulated in cells of grain kernel or embedded in protein matrix after milling and were thus physically inaccessible to amylases (type RS1). The crystalline structures of native starch granules were not completely degraded by amylases, retaining the skeletal structures in residual starch during granular starch hydrolysis or leaving residue granules and fragments with layered structures after jet‐cooking followed by the liquefaction and saccharification process, indicating the presence of RS2. Moreover, retrograded starch molecules (mainly amylose) as RS3, complexes of starch with other nonfermentable components as RS4, and starch–lipid complexes as RS5 were also present in DDGS. In general, the RS that escaped from the granular starch hydrolysis process was mainly RS1 and RS2, whereas that from the jet‐cooking process contained all types of RS (RS1 to RS5). Thus, the starch conversion efficiency and ethanol yield could be potentially affected by the presence of various RS in DDGS.  相似文献   

7.
Ten parent corn lines, including four mutants (dull sugary2, amylose‐extender sugary2, amylose‐extender dull, and an amylose‐extender with introgressed Guatemalen germplasm [GUAT ae]) and six lines with introgressed exotic germplasm backgrounds, were crossed with each other to create 20 progeny crosses to increase resistant starch (RS) as a dietary fiber in corn starch and to provide materials for thermal evaluation. The resistant starch 2 (RS2) values from the 10 parent lines were 18.3–52.2% and the values from the 20 progeny crosses were 16.6–34.0%. The %RS2 of parents was not additive in the offspring but greater RS2 in parents was correlated to greater RS2 in the progeny crosses (r = 0.63). Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) measured starch thermal characteristics, revealing positive correlations of peak gelatinization temperature and change in enthalpy with %RS2 (r = 0.65 and r = 0.67, P ≤ 0.05); however, % retrogradation (a measure of RS3) and retrogradation parameters did not correlate with %RS2. The %RS2 and onset temperature increased with the addition of the ae gene, likely because RS delays gelatinization.  相似文献   

8.
Resistant starches (RS) were prepared from wheat starch and lintnerized wheat starch by autoclaving and cooling and by cross‐linking. Heat‐moisture treatment also was used on one sample to increase RS. The experimental resistant starches made from wheat starch contained 10–73% RS measured as Prosky dietary fiber, whereas two commercial resistant starches, Novelose 240 and 330, produced from high‐amylose maize starch, contained 58 and 40%, respectively. At 25°C in excess water, the experimental RS starches, except for the cross‐linked wheat starch, gained 3–6 times more water than the commercial RS starches, and at 95°C gained 2–4 times more. Cross‐linked RS4 wheat starch and Novelose 240 showed 95°C swelling powers and solubilities of 2 g/g and 1%, and 3 g/g and 2%, respectively. All starches showed similar water vapor sorption and desorption isotherms at 25°C and water activities (aw) < 0.8. At aw 0.84–0.97, the resistant starches made from wheat starch, except the cross‐linked wheat starch, showed ≈10% higher water sorption than the commercial resistant starches.  相似文献   

9.
The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential to increase the level of resistant starch (RS) in extruded products by optimizing extruder conditions. Three experiments were conducted as randomized complete block designs with two replicates. In the first experiment, corn starch, wheat starch, and potato starch were added at a level of 30% (w/w) to degerminated yellow corn meal to investigate the influence of starch type. In the second experiment, citric acid (CA) monohydrate was added to corn meal at levels of 0, 2.5, 5, and 7.5% (w/w). The third experiment was a full-factorial arrangement to evaluate the effect of high-amylose corn starch (HACS) level (0, 15, 30%, w/w) and CA level (0, 5, 7.5%, w/w) at two screw speeds (200 and 300 rpm). In the first experiment, the means for RS plus dietary fiber for the different starch formulations ranged from 1.27 to 2.28%. In experiment 2, adding CA increased RS plus dietary fiber content to a maximum of 5.23% at 7.5% CA. In the third experiment, the means for RS plus dietary fiber ranged from a low of 1.75% for 100% corn meal at 300 rpm to 14.38% for 7.5% CA and 30% HACS at 200 rpm. The results indicated a highly significant positive relationship between CA and RS formation and the same for amylose content. The RS formation had a negative relationship with screw speed, but the influence of screw speed was small when compared with that of CA and HACS.  相似文献   

10.
To determine the rapidly digestible starch (RDS), slowly digestible starch (SDS), and resistant starch (RS) contents in a starch sample, the addition of amyloglucosidase is often used to convert hydrolyzates from α-amylase digestion to glucose. The objectives of this study were to investigate the exact role of amyloglucosidase in determining the digestibility of starch and to understand the mechanism of enzymatic actions on starch granules. Four maize starches differing in amylose content were examined: waxy maize (0.5% amylose), normal maize (≈27% amylose), and two high-amylose starches (≈57 and ≈71% amylose). Notably, without amyloglucosidase addition, the RS content increased from 4.3 to 74.3% for waxy maize starch, 29.7 to 76.5% for normal maize starch, 65.8 to 88.0% for starch with 57% amylose, and 68.2 to 90.4% for the starch with 71% amylose. In the method without α-amylase addition, less RS was produced than without added amyloglucosidase, except in maize at 71% amylose content. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed the digestive patterns of pinholes with α-amylase and burrowing with amyloglucosidase as well as the degree of digestion between samples. To understand the roles of amyloglucosidase and α-amylase in the in vitro test, multiple analytical techniques including gel permeation chromatography, SEM, synchrotron wide-angle X-ray diffraction, and small-angle X-ray scattering were used to determine the molecular and crystalline structure before and after digestion. Amyloglucosidase has a significant impact on the SDS and RS contents of granular maize starches.  相似文献   

11.
A high‐amylose, non‐floury corn, a floury corn, and a 1:1 blend were made into masa and then tortillas. The masa flour made with the high‐amylose corn had a greater amount of resistant starch (RS 28.8%) and a greater amount of total dietary fiber (TDF 42.1%) than that with the floury corn (RS 2.9%, TDF 9.6%), producing a high‐fiber tortilla. The masa was evaluated for pasting properties using a Rapid ViscoAnalyser (RVA). The high‐amylose masa slurry gelatinized little at 95°C. The floury masa had the greatest peak viscosity, whereas the 1:1 blend was intermediate in value. Sensory evaluations of the tortillas for the textural attributes showed the floury tortillas to be chewier, more rollable, and grittier than the high‐amylose tortillas, whereas the blend tortillas were intermediate for most attributes. The cutting force of the high‐amylose tortillas, measured on a texture analyzer, was very low; the blend and floury tortillas required more force. Chewiness was correlated to rollability (r = 0.99, P = 0.05). The %RS and %TDF were correlated to rollability (r = –0.99), and cutting force (r = 0.99). The floury and blend tortillas had firm textures expected of desirable tortillas, whereas the high‐amylose tortillas broke under little force, and would not roll. The high‐amylose tortillas had high amounts of RS and TDF but poor texture. The blend tortillas retained most floury tortilla textural properties, making them suitable products for consumer use.  相似文献   

12.
Differences in the degree of starch granule swelling and granule morphology are shown as a function of iodine concentration during heating. The observations reveal a restriction and delay in wheat and corn starch swelling in presence of iodine (0.02%) and a lack of swelling at higher iodine concentration (0.2%). The presence of iodine during heating did not influence waxy corn starch granule swelling, even at the higher concentration. A delay in the increase in paste viscosity during heating was observed, and gel formation was precluded after cooling at the higher iodine concentration. Waxy corn starch pastes formed a weak gel even at the higher iodine concentration. Spectrophotometric analyses showed that polymers leach into the solution when heated in the presence of 0.02% iodine, while no leaching was observed at 0.2% iodine concentration. Furthermore, the length and the amount of polymers leaching from normal corn were different from that observed for wheat starch. Thermal analyses reveal a shift in the onset of gelatinization temperature and an increase in the enthalpy in the amylose‐lipid region of the endotherm. While the iodine‐polymer complex did not appear to exhibit an endotherm during heating, the granules exhibited a diffused polarized cross, suggesting the presence of an ordered complex.  相似文献   

13.
RS4‐type resistant wheat starch (RWS) and resistant potato starch (RPS) were subjected successively to in vitro digestion with pepsin and pancreatin‐bile, and the indigestible residues (82.1% db and 74.1% db, respectively) were recovered and subsequently fermented by in vitro techniques using fresh human fecal microbiota as inoculum. Scanning electron microscopy of the indigestible residues showed surface erosion on the residual granules. Total gas production during the in vitro fermentation increased almost linearly over time with the two resistant starches exhibiting similar gas production rates, as well as a similar rate of production of total short‐chain fatty acids (SCFA). The indigestible fractions from both starches produced acetate as the major SCFA and relatively higher levels of butyrate than propionate, but wheat starch tended to produce more butyrate over time than potato starch. Fractional molar ratios of acetate, propionate, and butyrate from the RWS and RPS were 0.586:0.186:0.228 and 0.577:0.200:0.223, respectively. The calculated caloric contributions of the RWS and RPS are ≈33% lower than for unmodified starch and are comparable to those reported in the literature for RS2 and RS3 high‐amylose maize starches.  相似文献   

14.
Retrograded amylose is resistant to digestion by amylolytic enzymes, which is known as resistant starch type III (RS3). In this study we investigated the effect of β-amylase hydrolysis on the formation and physicochemical properties of RS3 from debranched corn starches. Three types of corn starch (Hylon VII, Hylon V, and common corn) were first gelatinized and then hydrolyzed using β-amylase to varying degrees. The resultant hydrolyzed starch was debranched with isoamylase and then exposed to temperature cycling to promote RS formation. A broad endotherm from approximately 45 to 120 °C and a small endotherm above 150 °C were noted for all retrograded starches. All three corn starches had increased RS contents after moderate β-amylolysis, with Hylon V having the highest RS content at 70.7% after 4 h of β-amylolysis. The results suggest that RS3 formation is affected by the starch composition as well as the starch structure and can be increased by moderate β-amylolysis.  相似文献   

15.
The influence of amylose content, cooking, and storage on starch structure, thermal behaviors, pasting properties, and rapidly digestible starch (RDS), slowly digestible starch (SDS), and resistant starch (RS) in different commercial rice cultivars was investigated. Long grain rice with high‐amylose content had a higher gelatinization temperature and a lower gelatinization enthalpy than the other rice cultivars with intermediate amylose content (Arborio and Calrose) and waxy type (glutinous). The intensity ratio of 1047/1022 cm–1 determined by Fourier Transform Infrared (FT‐IR), which indicated the ordered structure in starch granules, was the highest in glutinous and the lowest in long grain. Results from Rapid ViscoAnalyser (RVA) showed that the rice cultivar with higher amylose content had lower peak viscosity and breakdown, but higher pasting temperature, setback, and final viscosity. The RDS content was 28.1, 38.6, 41.5, and 57.5% in long grain, Arborio, Calrose, and glutinous rice, respectively, which was inversely related to amylose content. However, the SDS and RS contents were positively correlated with amylose content. During storage of cooked rice, long grain showed a continuous increase in pasting viscosity, while glutinous exhibited the sharp cold‐water swelling peak. The retrogradation rate was greater in rice cultivars with high amylose content. The ratio of 1047/1022 cm–1 was substantially decreased by cooking and then increased during storage of cooked rice due to the crystalline structure, newly formed by retrogradation. Storage of cooked rice decreased RDS content and increased SDS content in all rice cultivars. However, no increase in RS content during storage was observed. The enthalpy for retrogradation and the intensity ratio 1047/1022 cm–1 during storage were correlated negatively with RDS and positively with SDS (P ≤ 0.01).  相似文献   

16.
High‐amylose (80%) corn starch was modified by hydroxypropylation with different molar substitution (MS). The unique microstructure of high‐amylose starch keeps its granules intact after hydroxypropylation. However, the microstructures and thermal properties strongly depend on the MS of hydroxypropylation. With increasing MS, the granule size was increased, which is partly due to disrupted granule structure, particularly in the amorphous region. Unlike normal starch, the modified high‐amylose corn starch showed a narrow gelatinization range measured by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), which can be explained by destruction of amylose‐lipid complex. Internal microstructures and morphologies of hydroxypropylated starch were investigated using confocal laser scanning microscopy and to further explore the mechanism of chemical reaction and phase transitions.  相似文献   

17.
This study was undertaken to evaluate the lipidemic response of rice bran and the possible enhancement of its healthful properties by using raw or processed white or brown rice in place of corn starch. All diets contained 10% total dietary fiber, 15% fat, and 0.5% cholesterol. Weanling male golden Syrian hamsters were fed cellulose control (CC), processed corn starch (PCS), cellulose with processed brown rice (CPBR), rice bran (RB), RB with white rice (RBWR), RB with processed white rice (RBPWR), RB with brown rice (RBBR), and RB with processed brown rice (RBPBR) diets. After three weeks, the PCS diet significantly lowered total plasma cholesterol (TC) compared with the CC, CPBR, RBWR, and RBPBR diets. RB and RBBR diets significantly lowered TC and LDL‐C compared with CPBR diet. All the RB‐containing and PCS diets significantly lowered liver cholesterol and liver lipid content. Processing white rice increased TDF content 240% and insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) 360%, whereas soluble dietary fiber (SDF) decreased by 25%. Uncooked brown rice contained 7 times as much TDF as uncooked white rice. Processing brown rice decreased its TDF, IDF and SDF contents by 12, 6, and 42%, respectively. The data suggest that a possible mechanism for cholesterol‐lowering by rice bran, with or without added raw or processed rice (white or brown), is by decreasing lipid digestibility and increasing neutral sterol excretion, whereas cholesterol‐lowering by processed corn starch is mediated through other mechanisms.  相似文献   

18.
《Cereal Chemistry》2017,94(2):237-241
The effect of complexation temperature (30, 60, and 90°C) on the gelatinization properties, glass transition, enzymatic hydrolysis, and crystalline structure of high‐amylose corn starch–oleic acid (HACS‐OA) complexes created by a dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)‐based complexation method and of normal corn starch–oleic acid (NCS‐OA) complexes created by an alkaline‐based complexation method were investigated by using differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, and X‐ray diffractometry. The results indicated that the highest complex indices were found in the complexes created at 30 and 60°C with the DMSO‐based complexation method and alkaline‐based complexation method, respectively. The X‐ray diffraction patterns of both HACS‐OA complexes and NCS‐OA complexes created at different complexation temperatures were the V‐type pattern. For the complexes created by the two methods, both the melting temperature and the glass transition temperature increased obviously with increasing complexation temperature. Complexation temperature also influenced the enzymatic hydrolysis rate of starch‐OA complexes.  相似文献   

19.
Cooked buckwheat groats are suggested to contain a greater amount of resistant starch (RS) than cereal grains. High RS content, in addition to dietary fibers present in groats, contributes to the low‐calorie, high‐fiber food status of buckwheat. Six buckwheat genotypes exhibiting high, medium, and low RS content of cooked groats were selected, and starches were isolated to determine their functional properties to explore the possible cause of high RS content of cooked buckwheat groats. Apparent and actual amylose contents were 27.4 and 31.6–34.5% in high, 27.4–28.6 and 32.5–33.7% in medium, and 21.4–25.6 and 24.5–32.0% in low RS genotypes, respectively. Genotypes of high RS content exhibited greater amylose leaching based on total starch content during cooking than genotypes of low RS content, mainly because of higher amylose content in the former than latter. Genotypes of low RS content exhibited a relatively high content of amylose‐lipid complexes, as determined with a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). Gelatinization enthalpy and degree of amylopectin retrogradation determined with a DSC were not related to RS content. An evident relationship was observed between RS content of cooked groats and amylose retrogradation determined by gel hardness (r = 0.91, P < 0.05), cohesiveness (r = 0.89, P < 0.05), and syneresis (r = 0.88, P < 0.05). Increases in starch amylose content, amylose leaching capacity, and amylose retrogradation, as well as a decrease in the amount of amylose‐lipid complexes all appear to be related to high RS content of cooked buckwheat groats.  相似文献   

20.
Beneficial reduction in glycemic response has been observed after consumption of some high‐amylose foods. This study examined the effect of varying the moisture content and the particle size of the starch in a test food. Twelve men and 12 women consumed corn chips or corn muffins made with starch or starch plus cornmeal from standard corn (30% amylose, 70% amylopectin) or high amylose (70%) corn. Half of the subjects were hyperinsulinemic based on a prestudy glucose challenge. No gender differences were observed. The hyperinsulinemic subjects had significantly higher insulin and glucose responses and area under the curve as compared with the normal responders. Average glucose, insulin and glucagon were usually lower after muffins compared with chips or foods containing cornmeal. Insulin and glucose responses, but not glucagon, were significantly lower after the consumption of foods made with high‐amylose compared with standard corn starch and in control versus hyperinsulinemic subjects. Average plasma glucose and insulin area under the curves after high‐amylose foods were approximately half those after standard corn starch. The presence of cornmeal (increasing the particle size of the starch) had less effect on the response of glucose, insulin or glucagon than the type of starch or food consumed.  相似文献   

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