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1.
Pyrolysis behavior of levoglucosan (1,6-anhydro--d-glucopyranose), the major anhydromonosaccharide formed during cellulose pyrolysis, was studied at 250°–400°C under nitrogen. The pyrolysis products were found to change stepwise: levoglucosan MeOH-soluble fraction (lower-molecular-weight products and oligosaccharides) water-soluble fraction (polysaccharides) insoluble fraction (carbonized products). From the present experimental results, a pathway of cellulose pyrolysis via anhydromonosaccharide is proposed including polymerization to polysaccharides (a reversible reaction) as a key reaction to carbonized product formation.Part of this study was presented at the XIXth International Carbohydrate Symposium, San Diego, August 1998; and the 50th Annual Meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society, Kyoto, April 2000  相似文献   

2.
Chemically synthesized (1 5)--d-glucofuranan, (1 5)--d-galactofuranan, (1 5)--d-xylofuranan, (1 5)--L-arabinofuranan, natural xylan, and curdlan were sulfated to investigate their inhibitory activities on B16-BL6 lung metastasis and anticoagulant activities. (1 5)--d-Glucofuranan sulfate, (1 5)--d-galactofuranan sulfate, xylan sulfate, and curdlan sulfate had binding abilities with B16-BL6 melanoma lysate. The inhibitory activities of sulfated polysaccharides on B16-BL6 lung metastasis selected by heparin binding assay were in the order (1 5)--d-galactofuranan sulfate > (1 5)---d-glucofuranan sulfate > xylan sulfate curdlan sulfate. Furthermore, (1 5)--d-galactofuranan sulfate, (1 5)--d-glucofuranan sulfate, and xylan sulfate had not only high inhibitory activity on B16-BL6 lung metastasis but also low anticoagulant activity. The correlation between chemical structure and biological activity is discussed.Part of this paper was presented at the 10th International Synposium on Wood and Pulping Chemistry, Yokohama, Japan, June 1999  相似文献   

3.
Summary A -d-(13)-linked glucan has been isolated from compression wood of tamarack [Larix laricina (Du Roi) K. Koch]. The polysaccharide, which had []D + 17.6°, consumed 0.17 mole of periodate per glucose residue and gave a methyl derivative which consisted of 115 2,4,6-tri- and 2,3,4,6-tetra-O-methyl-d-glucose residues in a ratio of 17.8:1. Partial acid hydrolysis yielded a series of -d-(13)-linked oligosaccharides, while enzymic hydrolysis with a -1,3-glucanase afforded glucose, laminaribiose, and laminaritriose. The glucan occurred in amounts varying from 2 to 4% in compression wood of this and other conifer species and was present in the wall of both tracheids and ray cells. It is proposed that this structural polysaccharide be designated as laricinan to distinguish it from callose and the various -1,3-glucans in lower plants.  相似文献   

4.
Xylan prepared from culms of kumaizasa (Sasa senanensis Rehd.), a representative species of bamboo grass, was hydrolyzed with-xylanase ofStreptomyces olivaceoviridis E-86. Four arabinoxylo-oligosaccharides and two glucuronoxylo-oligosaccharides were isolated from the enzymatic hydrolysate of the xylan by chromatography on a charcoal column, a Dowex 1-x8 column, a Toyo-pearl HW-40S column, and a LiChrospher 100 NH2 column and on preparative paper chromatography. The results of the structural analyses of the saccharides showed that the isolated oligosaccharides had the structures of 32--l-arabinofuranosyl-xylobiose, 32--l-arabinofuranosyl-xylotriose, 32--[-d-xylopyranosyl-(1 2)-l-arabinofuranosyl]-xylobiose, 33--[-d-xylopyranosyl-(1 2)-l-arabinofuranosyl]-xylotriose, 23--4-O-methyl-d-glucuronosyl-xylotriose, and 23--d-glucuronosyl-xylotriose. From the structural analysis of the oligosaccharides derived from the xylan, kumaizasa xylan was concluded to be a kind of arabinoglucuronoxylan having not only stubs of singlel-arabinose and singled-glucuronic acid but also stubs of disaccharide units such as-d-xylopyranosyl-(1 2)-l-arabinofuranose.  相似文献   

5.
The effects of stilbene glucosides and related compounds on termite feeding behavior were investigated using paper disc methods against the subterranean termite Reticulitermes speratus. The stilbene-rich fraction and isorhapontin (3-methoxy-3,4, 5-trihydroxystilbene-3--d-glucoside) from bark extracts of Picea glehnii showed avoidance by termites in choice tests. In the no-choice tests using compounds purified from the stilbene-rich fraction, the largest feeding deterrent effect was observed for piceid (3,4,5-trihydroxystilbene-3--d-glucoside), followed by isorhapontin, and astringin (3,3,4,5-tetrahydroxystilbene-3--d-glucoside), at the concentrations from 0.63 to 2.5µmol/disc. No change in activity was observed at retentions of more than 5.0µmol/disc. When the activities of isorhapontin and its aglycone derivative (isorhapontigenin: 3-methoxy-3,4,5-trihydroxystilbene) were compared with that of taxifolin (3,3,4,5,7-pentahydroxyflavanone) in the no-choice test, the stilbenes exhibited a larger antifeedant potential. Methylation of isorhapontigenin increased its termiticidal activity.Part of this study was presented at the 32nd Annual Meeting of the International Research Group on Wood Preservation, 2001  相似文献   

6.
Summary Stereochemical studies on the formation of the diastereomers of arylglycerol--aryl ether structures during lignin biosynthesis have been carried out with model compounds. The addition of water to quinone methides of the -syringyl ether type gives arylglycerol -syringyl ethers with a predominance of the erythro isomer when the pH of the medium is low. Since erythro forms of arylglycerol -syringyl ethers are prevalent in hardwood lignins, this indicates that the pH of the medium in which lignin biosynthesis occurs is lower than has been assumed until now. Equilibration studies with non-phenolic model compounds of the arylglycerol-guaiacyl ether and -syringyl ether types under acidolysis conditions indicate that the erythro predominance observed in the syringyl ethers in lignins does not correspond to equilibrium conditions. A remarkable resistance to acidolysis is observed in the model compounds of etherified syringylglycerol -syringyl ether type.  相似文献   

7.
Synthesis of isoacteoside, a dihydroxyphenylethyl glycoside   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
The total chemical synthesis of isoacteoside (1), 2-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)ethyl 6-O-caffeoyl-3-O-(-l-rhamnopyranosyl)--d-glucopyranoside, is described. An acteoside acetate with benzyl groups at the catechols (3: 2-(3,4-dibenzyloxyphenyl)ethyl 2,6-di-O-acetyl-4-O-[3,4-bis(O-benzyl)caffeoyl]-3-O-(-l-rhamnopyranosyl)--d-glucopyranoside) was treated with a solution of methy-lamine in methanol (MeNH2 in MeOH) to perform both deacetylation and caffeoyl migration, affording an isoacteoside derivative with benzyl groups at the catechols4b: 2-(3,4-dibenzyloxyphenyl)ethyl 6-O-[3,4-bis(O-benzyl) caffeoyl] -3-O-(-l-rhamnopyranosyl)--d-glucopyranoside —in 34% yield. Debenzylation of4b was successfully accomplished by catalytic transfer hydrogenation using 1,4-cyclohexadiene to give the target compound isoacteoside (1) in 54% yield.1H and13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectral data of the synthesized isoacteoside (1) were identical with those of the natural isoacteoside isolated fromPaulownia tomentosa (Thumb.) Steud.Part of this research was presented at the 51st Annual Meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society, Tokyo, April 2001  相似文献   

8.
Sphingomonas paucimobilis SYK-6 produces unique and specific enzymes, such as-etherases,O-demethylases, and ring fission dioxygenases, for lignin degradation. Cleavage of arylglycerol--aryl ether linkage is the most important process in the lignin metabolic pathway ofS. paucimobilis SYK-6. We reported the genes (ligD, ligE, ligF) for enzymes that cleaved-aryl ether linkage of dimeric compounds in previous studies. In this study we synthesized the fluorescent high-molecular-weight lignin (UBE-DHP) by dehydrogenative polymerization. We investigated the-aryl ether cleavage ability of these enzymes produced in recombinantEscherichia coli. When UBE-DHP was incubated with LigF, 4-methylumbeliferone was released as a result of-aryl ether cleavage of O-methylumbelliferyl--hydroxypropiovanillone (compound III) incorporated in UBE-DHP. Here, we report that-etherase ofS. paucimobilis SYK-6 can be expressed inE. coli and is able to cleave the-aryl ether linkage in synthetic high-molecular-weight lignin.  相似文献   

9.
When (±)--oxo-guaiacylglycerol--(vanillic acid) ether (1) is degraded byFusarium solani M-13-1, the-ketone is initially reduced to giveerythro andthreo guaiacylglycerol--(vanillic acid) ethers (2), arylglycerol--aryl ethers, both of which are enantiomerically pure. The absolute configuration in each2 was determined by Mosher's method; the products were converted to,-di-(R)--methoxy--trifluoromethylphenylacetates (MTPA esters) (3) oferythro (-)- andthreo (+)-veratrylglycerol--(methyl vanillate) ethers (3), whose1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra were examined and compared with those of four di-(R)-MTPA ester (3) diastereomers from chemically synthesizederythro (±)-3 andthreo (±)-3. To assign the- and-MTPA-OCH3 peaks, the1H NMR scans of several compounds that have substructures of 3 and their 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl analogues were examined. When a racemic alcohol reacts with (R)-MTPA to give a pair of (R)-MTPA ester diastereomers, the value was defined as the absolute value of the difference in the1H chemical shifts of the peak between the diastereomers. It was found that the values of-MTPA-OCH3 were larger than those of-MTPA-OCH3 owing to a shielding effect of the veratryl ring located on the-MTPA-OCH3, and that the-MTPA-OCH3 peaks in the 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl compounds shifted downfield relative to those in the veratryl compounds. On the basis of the1h NMR data of (R)-MTPA esters, the absolute configuration of the four chemically prepared diastereomers (3) were determined. The catabolicerythro 3 [fromerythro (-)-3] andthreo 3 [fromthreo (+)-3] were identical to (R, S, R)-erythro 3 and (R, S, S)- threo 3, respectively. An hydrogen species in the fungal reduction would attack the-ketone fromre-face of both (R)-1 and (S)-1, givingerythro (S, R)-2 andthreo (S, S)-2, respectively.Part of this paper was presented at the 33rd Lignin Symposium, Tsukuba, November 1988  相似文献   

10.
A novel method for analysis of benzylic ether type lignin–carbohydrate bonds has been developed by using model compounds. Four diastereomers of model compound 3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-(2-methoxyphenoxy)-3-(methyl -d-glucopyranoside-6-O-yl)-1-propanol (GGMGP), were ozonized in acetic acid/water/methanol 16:3:1 for 1h at 0°C. The product from ozonation of each diastereomer was saponified and the corresponding -etherified tetronic acid (TAMGP) was isolated using ion exchange chromatography. Minor amounts of methyl -d-glucopyranoside (MGP) and small amounts of a gluconic acid etherified with tetronic acid (TAGLCA), tetronic acid, gluconic acid, and glyceric acid were detected in the product mixture of ozonated benzylic ether type model compounds. The results suggest that a benzyl ether bond between lignin and carbohydrate is rather stable during the ozone treatment. Acid treatments with sulfuric acid or trifluoroacetic acid of the derived TAMGP led to cleavage of the glucosidic bond but only a small amount of products (tetronic acid and glucose) resulting from cleavage of the -ether bond were formed. The successful chemical treatments were used for studies of benzylic ether bonds in Japanese red pine. The results suggest the presence of benzylic ether bonds to polysaccharides in the wood.Part of this paper was presented at the 10th International Symposium of Wood and Pulping Chemistry (ISWPC), Yokohama, 1999; the 11th ISWPC, Nice, 2001; and as a rapid comunication in J Wood Sci (2000) 46:263–265  相似文献   

11.
Twelve-week-old container-grown seedlings of noble fir (Abies procera Rehd.) and Shasta red fir (A. magnifica A. Murr. var. shastensis Lemm.), both high-elevation species, were grown under controlled environments in a study of induction of terminal-bud dormancy. Eight treatment combinations of long (15 h) or short (11 h) photoperiods, warm (25°/20°C) or cool (18°/12°C) thermoperiods, and dry (–1.2 MPa) or wet (–0.6 MPa) moisture regimes were imposed upon seedlings for 12 weeks. Treatment factors significantly affecting the induction of dormancy in terminal buds of seedlings were identified over time. The results suggest that seedlings responded dynamically to dormancy cues. The warm/dry and cool/wet combinations induced dormancy in the first 2 weeks in noble fir and in the first week in Shasta red fir. Short-day/warm and long-day/cool combinations enhanced dormancy induction in weeks 3 to 4 in noble fir and in weeks 1 to 7 in Shasta red fir. Short days and cool thermoperiods independently hastened dormancy induction in noble fir in weeks 5 through 12.  相似文献   

12.
Summary The structure of the reducing end group in xylan can be written: --D-Xylp-(14)--D-Xylp-(13)--L-Rhap-(12)---D-GalpA-(14)-D-XylIn alkaline media the reducing xylose group is easily isomerized and removed by a -elimination which leads to a reducing galacturonic acid end group. The 1, 2-linkage between rhamnose and the galacturonic acid explains the retarding effect on the alkaline peeling. Even under fairly mild conditions the galacturonic acid group is converted to other groups which are very stable in alkaline media. Model experiments permit the conclusion that OH-3 in the reducing group is subjected to -hydroxyelimination. The 3-deoxy-2-O--L-rhamnopyranosyl-D-threo-hex-2-enuronic acid group formed is unstable in acid medium and escapes observation by the techniques employed for determination of the end groups.Upon prolonged alkaline treatment and increased proportion of these groups is lost and a rapid peeling proceeds until a xylose group with a 4-O-methylglucuronic acid substituent is liberated. The consecutive reactions of this group are similar to those of the galacturonic acid groups.The formation of 3-deoxyaldonic acid end groups, an important stopping reaction in cellulose, is of minor importance in xylan.The financial support from the 1959 Års Fond för Teknisk och Skoglig Forskning samt Utbildning is gratefully acknowledged.  相似文献   

13.
The extractives of shirakamba (Betula platyphylla Sukatchev var.japonica Hara) leaves were investigated. Two lignan glycosides were isolated, and their structures were elucidated to be 1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-[1-(3--l-rhamnopyranosyloxypropyl)-3-hydroxyphenoxy]-1,3-propanediol (I) and a new 2,3-dihydro-2-arylbenzofuran configuration neolignan,cis-2,3-dihydro-2-(4--l-rhamnopyranosyloxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-3-hydroxymethyl-7-hydroxy-5-benzofuranpropanol (II). These neolignan rhamnosides were newly found in shirakamba.  相似文献   

14.
The effect of temperature on the capillary isotherm is accounted for in a modified derivation. Some new equilibrium moisture content data for E. regnans are presented and fitted by the capillary isotherm. Some earlier data for Klinki pine are also fitted. It is shown precisely how reductions in the shear modulus of the cell wall material with increasing temperature give rise to reductions in equilibrium moisture content for a given relative humidity.Symbols A G0/R, K - a1 external radius of annulus, m - a2 internal radius of annulus, m - af a2 at fibre saturation, m - a a constant length, m - B a constant of integration - b1, b2 temperature parameters, K1- - G rigidity of wood substance, Pa - G0 G for dry wood, Pa - Gf G at fibre saturation, Pa - h isosteric heat, J/kg - latent heat, J/kg - p capillary pressure, Pa - Ps pressure of water vapour at saturation, Pa - R specific gas constant for water, J/kg K - r relative humidity - ri inflection intercept - rt tangent intercept - T temperature, K - t temperature, °C - X see equation (18) - x see equation (28) - , , 1, 1 coefficients, equations (27), (37) - y1, y2 see equations (25), (26), K - parameter, equation (9) - parameter, equation (33) - density of water, kg/m3 - W density of wood substance, kg/m3 - equilibrium moisture content - 0.2 at r = 0.2 - 0.5 at r = 0.5 - 0.9 at r = 0.9 - f at fibre saturation  相似文献   

15.
The susceptibility of some spring wheat varieties to the attack by the two wheat blossom midge species (Dipt., Cecidomyidae) The susceptibility of 20 spring wheat varieties to the attack byContarinia tritici (Kirby) andSitodiplosis mosellana (Géhin) was studied from 1971 to 1976 on small plots. Some varieties proved to be very susceptible, others were partly resistant. Meritus showed a high susceptibility to both wheat blossom midge species, while Arm showed a very low one. The resistance observed could not be explained by incoincidence. Of the varieties still being in trade, Opal should not be grown in areas of damage byS. mosellana. Kleiber and Kolibri are apt for this. Arin can be recommended to be grown in areas, where damage by both wheat blossom midges occurs.  相似文献   

16.
Summary During the application of several acaricides to manifest their effectivness againstPanonychus ulmi Koch living on the apple trees in Lebanon, it could be clearly noticed that a kind of resistance to the phosphoric acid organic preparations occurs, where these mentioned chemicals are regularly used against the mites. The control succes by means of some acaricides and ovicides combinations is here discussed. AsTetranychus urticae Koch in some apple plantations infests the different weeds growing together with the trees there and it wanders in summer to overrun the apple trees; the question of the mite control by means of respective sprays or by means of weed eradication is also discussed.
Résumé L'étude de l'efficacité d'une série d'acaricides dePanonychus ulmi Koch sur pomme en Liban a démontré une certaine résistance de groupes des parathions, lá où ceux — ci sont appliqués régulièrement depuis des années. Les résultats de combat de quelques acaricides et combinaisons par des ovicides sont discutés. PuisqueTetranychus urticae Koch occupe les herbes, les plus différentes, et depuis — là en été change sur les pommiers la question d'un combat de cet acarien nuisible par des application ultérieures ou par l'extermination d'herbes est discuté e.
, Pannonychus ulmi Phosphorsäureester. Akarizide Ovizide. Tetranychus urticae , .
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17.
Zusammenfassung In Freiland- und Laborversuchen wurde die Wirkung des Pflanzenschutzmittels Sevin auf Regenwürmer untersucht. Dieser Stoff ist in Pulverform und als Suspension für diese Organismen außerordentlich gefährlich. Schon der Kontakt mit sehr geringen Mengen bewirkt schwere Lähmungserscheinungen und irreversible histopathologische Schäden.
Summary Experiments in the field as well as in the laboratory showed up the effect of the pesticide Sevin on rainworms. In the form of powder as well as a suspension this material is extremely toxic for them. Contact with smallest quantities even causes severe paralysis and irreversible histopathologic damages.
Résumé Aussi bien dans la nature que au laboratoire nous avons étudié l'activité de l'insecticide Sevin sur les vers de terre. Ce produit est en poudre ou en suspension extrémement dangereux pour ces organismes. Le seul contact avec des quantités minimes de ce produit provoquent des phénomènes de paralysie et des troubles histopathologiques irreversibles.
SEVIN . . .
  相似文献   

18.
Summary In this paper a new method for rearingTribolium destructor is described. For oviposition the imagines are cultured in a thermostate (27° C, 70% RH) on a mixture of flour and yeast; additional feeding of pieces of fresh apple is necessary. The sifted eggs also must be stored in the thermostate. The newly hatched larvae must be isolated from the mixture of egg shells, particles of yeast, excrements of the beetles and of the remains of flour, and they get fresh food (flour-yeast-mixture). The rearing is performed in the thermostate in glass-vessels of a bigness corresponding to the developmental state of the larvae. Fully grown larvae must be isolated (for getting exactly dated material of pupae) or they are put in Petri-dishes furnished with fluted coardboard. Pupae and imagines which are not used for obtaining eggs are cultured at room temperature in darkness (flour-yeast-mixture with additional feeding of apple pieces).
Résumé Dans ce travail une nouvelle méthode de l'élevage deTribolium destructor est décrite. Pour la déposition des oeufs les adultes sont tenus dans un thermostat à température constante (27° C et 70% RH) dans une mixture de farine et de levure; en outre il faut un don supplémentaire de pomme fraî che. Les oeufs séparés en criblant sont aussi tenus dans le thermostat. Les larves qui viennent d'é clore sont à séparer de la mixture des coques d'oeuf, des particules de levure, des excréments et des restes de farine, et après elles reçoivent de la nourriture fraîche (mixture de farine et de levure). L'élevage a lieu dans des bocaux dans le thermostat. La grandeure de ces bocaux doit correspondre à l'état du développement des larves. Les larves complétement développées sont à isoler (pour obtenir du materiel des chrysalides bien datées) ou à mettre dans des bocaux »Petri« fournis de carton ondulé. Les chrysalides et les adultes, qui ne sont pas nécessaires pour la déposition des oeufs, sont á tenir à témperature de chambre dans l'obscurité (mixture de farine et de levure, de temps en temps aussi de pomme).
» «Tribolium destructor Uyttenb.). 27° C 70% PH ; . . , , ; ( ). , . ( « »-, ). , ( — , ).

Diese Untersuchung wurde im Zusammenhang mit einem größeren Forschungsvorhaben durchgeführt, das durch Unterstützung der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft ermöglicht wird.  相似文献   

19.
The effects of prolonged smoke-heating treatments on wood quality were investigated. Six Japanese softwoods were smoke-heated for 100 and 200h at a temperature of 75° ± 5°C, which was recorded inside the log. After smoke heating, wood quality, including moisture content, amounts of chemical components, relative degree of crystallinity (RDC) of cellulose, and sapwood color were examined. Moisture content decreased as a result of smoke heating, especially in sapwood, leading to a uniform distribution of moisture content within a log. Almost no difference was found in the amounts of chemical components between the control woods and the woods that were smoke-heated for 100h. However, in the wood that was smoke-heated for 200h, the amounts of holocellulose decreased, suggesting that thermal deterioration and/or degradation of hemicelluloses had occurred. We assume that the increase in RDC was caused by smoke heating with the crystallization of cellulose and/or thermal degradation of hemicelluloses. Almost no differences were found in sapwood color between the control woods and the woods that were smoke-heated for 100h. In the wood that was smoke-heated for 200h, however, L*decreased, whereas a* and b* increased. As a result, E*ab, showing the total color change, increased, resulting in a deeper color. These results suggest that thermal degradation of hemicelluloses was caused by smoke heating for over 100h. Therefore, smoke heating of softwood logs using a commercial-scale kiln should not exceed 100h.  相似文献   

20.
Zusammenfassung DurchRickettsiella melolonthae (Krieg) PHILIP infizierte Maikäfer-Engerlinge wandern während des Spätherbstes und Winters im Freiland absterbend auf die Erdoberfläche. Als Begleitarten inMelolontha Larvenpopulationen kamen im Gebiet vor:Amphimallon solstitiale (L.),Anomala dubia aenea (DeG.) undMaladera brunnea (L.). MitR. melolonthae künstlich infiziert, zeigten sie im Orientierungsversuch die gleiche Aufwanderungstendenz wie kranke Maikäferengerlinge, am deutlichsten die vonM. brunnea. Auf dem Waldboden fanden sich kranke Larven dieser Art in einigen Fällen.
Summary Larvae ofMelolontha spp. infested withRickettsiella melolonthae (Krieg) PHILIP move during October– January to the top of the soil where they eventually die. Larvae ofAmphimallon solstitiale (L.),Anomala dubia aenea (DeG.) andMaladera brunnea (L.) are susceptible forR. melolonthae, too. In experiments, artificially infested individuals showed a similar tendency to move upward. This was most pronounced inM. brunnea, of which some infested larvae were found on the forest floor.
Résumé Larves du hanneton, infectées parRickettsiella melolonthae (Krieg) PHILIP, se rendent à la surface de la terre au fin de l'automme et dans l'hivers. Comme espèces accompagnant les populations larvaires deMelolontha nous avons trouvés:Amphimallon solstitiale (L.),Anomala dubia aenea (DeG.) etMaladera brunnea (L.). Ils out démonstré, après une infection artificielle avecR. melolonthae, la mème tendence dans les essais d'orientation comme les vers blancs malades deMelolontha. Le phé nomène etait le plus prononcé parmi les larves deMaladera. De cette espèce nous avons trouvés plusieurs larves malades à la surface de la terre en plein champs.
Rickettsiella melolonthae (Krieg) Philip Melolontha- . . Melolontha- :Amphimallon solstitiale (L.),Anomala dubia aenea (De G.) Maladera brunnea (L.). R. melolonthae , Melolontha-, M. brunnea. .
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