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1.
1. Cross-contamination during air chilling of poultry carcases was investigated using a nalidixic acid-resistant strain of Escherichia coli K12 as a marker organism. 2. Experiments were carried out on 2 types of commercial chiller, with and without the use of water sprays (evaporative cooling), and a pilot-scale chiller in which conditions could be varied as required. 3. In the commercial chillers, the marker was dispersed in all directions from a single inoculated carcase and transmission was increased by the use of chlorinated water sprays. 4. Similar results were obtained with the pilot-scale chiller, where the marker was recovered from 45/54 uninoculated carcases; cross-contamination was not prevented by spraying carcases with water containing 50 mg/l of free available chlorine. 5. Despite the ease of microbial transmission from inoculated carcases, cross-contamination during air chilling is likely to be less than that occurring at earlier stages of poultry processing, when carcases are more heavily contaminated. 相似文献
2.
W O James R L Brewer J C Prucha W O Williams D R Parham 《Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association》1992,200(1):60-63
In March 1989, the USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service sampled raw chicken carcasses and giblets at a federally inspected slaughter establishment in Puerto Rico to determine the effects of adding chlorine to carcass and giblet chill water on bacterial contents of raw poultry products. Over four 8-hour workdays, 200 carcass rinse samples were collected at 3 sites in the establishment; 39 giblet rinse samples were collected at 1 site. Analyses of the carcass rinse samples indicated that carcasses had average aerobe plate counts of log10 3.20 before chilling and 2.51 after chilling; Enterobacteriaceae counts of log10 2.57 before chilling and 1.75 after chilling; and Escherichia coli counts of log10 2.04 before chilling and 1.20 after chilling. Salmonellae were found on 43% of the carcasses before chilling and on 46% after chilling. Analyses of the giblet and neck rinse samples indicated that raw giblets and necks after chilling had average aerobe plate count of log10 3.49, Enterobacteriaceae count of log10 2.57, and E coli count of log10 1.06. Salmonellae were found on 12% of the giblets and necks sampled. Results compared favorably with giblet and neck rinse sample results obtained during a baseline sampling study in November and December 1987. The baseline results indicated aerobe plate count of log10 3.72; Enterobacteriaceae count of log10 2.90; E coli count of log10 1.14; and salmonellae on 69% of the giblets and necks sampled. Placing raw chicken carcasses in chlorinated chill water reduced aerobe, Enterobacteriaceae, and E coli plate counts. Prevalence of carcasses with salmonellae remained nearly the same.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS) 相似文献
3.
W O James J C Prucha R L Brewer W O Williams W A Christensen A M Thaler A T Hogue 《Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association》1992,201(5):705-708
In June and September 1988, the USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service sampled raw chicken carcasses at a federally inspected slaughter establishment in Puerto Rico to determine the effects of changing the scalding equipment on bacterial contents of raw poultry products. The scalding equipment was changed to a countercurrent configuration, with a postscald hot-water rinse cabinet that sprayed carcasses as they exited the scalder. Analysis of 250 carcass-rinse samples collected at preevisceration, prechill, and postchill sites over 7 days indicated that carcasses had mean aerobe plate counts of log(10)3.73 before evisceration, 3.18 before chilling, and 2.87 after chilling; Enterobacteriaceae counts of log(10)2.70 before evisceration, 2.25 before chilling, and 1.56 after chilling; and Escherichia coli counts of log(10)2.09 before evisceration, 1.61 before chilling, and 0.89 after chilling. Salmonellae were found on 24% of the carcasses before evisceration, on 28% before chilling, and on 49% after chilling. Although bacterial count reductions were significant at all 3 sites, the proportion of carcasses contaminated with salmonellae in this study was higher at the postchill than prechill site (49 vs 28%). This no doubt was caused by cross-contamination in the chiller. These percentages indicated that although simple scalder changes contributed substantially to the improvement of the bacterial quality of chicken carcasses, additional interventions in the chilling process (such as chlorination of chill water) are important to control cross-contamination and to preserve the positive effects obtained by the scalder changes. 相似文献
4.
Quantitative changes have been determined in the flora of chicken carcasses after passage through a series of three separate spin‐chillers. The majority of organisms were eliminated from the chill‐water during processing by using 1.7 1 of water per carcass and 45 to 50 ppm of total residual chlorine in the first two chillers and 1.0 1 of water per carcass and 25 to 30 ppm of residual chlorine in the third chiller.
Total viable counts at 20 and 37 °C and levels of coli‐aerogenes bacteria obtained from the rinsing of whole carcasses were reduced by more than 90% during chilling. Results obtained both with and without the use of chlorination compared favourably with those claimed for other chilling systems. It was concluded that the main effect of chlorination in the chillers was to destroy organisms washed from the carcasses, thus avoiding recontamination.
A comparison of two different sampling methods showed that maceration of neck‐skin usually gave higher counts of both faecal and spoilage bacteria after chilling than the rinsing of whole carcasses. 相似文献
5.
Hamilton D Holds G Lorimer M Kiermeier A Kidd C Slade J Pointon A 《Zoonoses and public health》2010,57(Z1):16-22
A decontamination trial on the effectiveness of hot water or acidified sodium chlorite (SANOVA) treatment on Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli and Total Viable Count (TVC) was undertaken on pork carcases prior to primary chilling in two large pork abattoirs in Australia using belly-strip excision sampling. A total of 123 samples from Abattoir A and 400 samples from Abattoir B were cultured and analysed. Test pigs were selected from herds with a known high level of on-farm Salmonella infection. At Abattoir A, Salmonella spp. were not isolated from carcases. The prevalence of E. coli on control carcases was 92.9% compared with 9.8% for hot water and 12.5% for SANOVA treated carcases. The mean log(10) E. coli concentration for control carcases was 0.89 cfu/gram, compared with -0.83 cfu/gram from hot water and -0.75 cfu/gram from SANOVA treated carcases. The mean log(10) TVC for control carcases was 4.06 compared with 1.81 cfu/gram for hot water and 2.76 cfu/gram for SANOVA treated carcases. At Abattoir B, the prevalence of Salmonella on control carcases was 16% compared with 2.7% for hot water and 7.0% for SANOVA treated carcases. The prevalence of E. coli on control carcases was 69.3% compared with 22% for hot water and 30% for SANOVA treated carcases. The mean log(10) E. coli concentration for control carcases was 0.45 cfu/gram, compared with -0.65 cfu/gram from hot water and -0.60 cfu/gram from SANOVA treated carcases. The mean log(10) TVC for control carcases was 3.00 cfu/gram compared with 2.10 cfu/gram for hot water and 2.53 cfu/gram for SANOVA treated carcases. The reductions in prevalence and mean log(10) concentrations in the present trial were all found to be statistically significant and indicate that carcases decontamination with either hot water or SANOVA are effective risk management options immediately available to the pork industry. 相似文献
6.
R. T. Parry 《British poultry science》1975,16(5):517-526
1. Sampling carcasses after plucking or after the post‐evisceration spray‐wash showed that 10 or 20 ppm available chlorine in the processing‐plant water supply caused little reduction in carcass contamination.
2. When 20 ppm chlorine was used in the water supply to parts of the processing‐plant other than the mechanical immersion chilling system, counts of faecal and spoilage bacteria from carcasses were reduced approximately 10‐fold after passage through the chilling system; bacterial numbers were correspondingly decreased in the chiller water due to a carry‐over of chlorine from the final spray‐washer.
3. Artificial contamination of carcasses with a readily identifiable strain of Escherichia coli confirmed the occurrence of cross‐contamination during plucking and evisceration; in‐plant chlorination reduced neither the proportion of carcasses contaminated nor the numbers of organisms transferred at these stages.
4. In most cases the chlorine‐resistance of poultry spoilage pseudo‐monads was greater than that of E. coli; hence in‐plant chlorination is to be recommended for processing‐plant water supplies which carry such spoilage organisms. 相似文献
7.
Conditions have been determined under which chlorination can be used to eliminate both faecal and spoilage bacteria from the water used for chilling eviscerated poultry carcasses, thus avoiding any hazard from cross‐contamination.
All combinations of three rates of water usage (2.5, 5 or 8 1 per carcass) and three concentrations of total residual chlorine (10 to 15, 25 to 30 or 45 to 50 ppm), obtained by the addition of sodium hypochlorite, were compared. It was found that the majority of bacteria present were destroyed by the use of 45 to 50 ppm of total chlorine in conjunction with 5 1 of water per carcass. When the rate of water usage was increased to 8 1 per carcass it was found that 25 to 30 ppm of residual chlorine in the chill‐water gave comparable results.
The effect of water usage on the concentrations of free residual chlorine present in the chill‐water during processing is discussed. When chlorine gas was added continuously at a fixed concentration to the input water the concentration of total residual chlorine decreased in each chiller. This method of chlorination was found to be less effective in destroying bacteria than the hypochlorite method which could be used to vary the amount of added chlorine in order to maintain the required total residual concentration during processing. 相似文献
8.
1. The frequency of thermophilic Campylobacter spp. on broiler carcases was determined during processing in a Southern Brazil slaughterhouse. Samples were collected after defeathering, evisceration, water chilling and freezing. In addition, samples were obtained from the water of the chiller tank and from the surface of equipment in direct contact with the chicken. 2. Samples (335) were analysed and 71.3% were positive for Campylobacter. The frequency of Campylobacter spp. on carcases rinsed in BPW and skin samples from carcases was 49 of 72 (68.0%) after defeathering, 50 of 72 (69.4%) after evisceration, 61 of 72 (84.7%) after chilling, and 46 of 72 (63.9%) after freezing. Campylobacter was positive for 21 of 23 (91.3%) samples in the chilling water and for 12 of 24 (50.0%) samples on the table surface. 3. The frequency of qualitative analysis for Campylobacter spp. was reduced in frozen chickens, but not during the slaughtering process. The use of drinking water alone as a decontaminant to reduce the incidence of Campylobacter spp. during slaughter is therefore not sufficient. Furthermore, to ensure food safety, chickens must be cooked properly before consuming. 相似文献
9.
1. An experiment was conducted to investigate the development of shortening-induced toughness in the Pectoralis major (PM) muscles of commercially processed broilers, air-chilled at 0 degrees C and -12 degrees C, as a function of muscle pH early post-mortem. Electrical stimulation was used immediately after stunning and neck cutting to provide carcases with pH values 15 min post-mortem (pH15 min) ranging between 6.79 and 5.85. 2. The deep PM muscle temperatures of carcases chilled at -12 degrees C were lower (cooler) after primary chilling and at 215 min post-mortem than those chilled at 0 degrees C, although chilling regimen had no major effect on pH values over the 24 h post-mortem period. However, carcases chilled at -12 degrees C had longer sarcomeres, lower cooking losses and lower shear force values than those chilled at 0 degrees C. 3. Correlation analysis of the results for both chilling regimens clearly demonstrated that over the pH15min range 6.79 to 5.85, carcases with the lowest pH15min values had the shortest sarcomeres, the highest cooking losses and the toughest meat. In addition, there was no evidence to support the occurrence of cold shortening within this population. This suggests that an early onset of rigor at higher temperatures in broiler carcases, as well as inducing rigor shortening and toughness, might also induce greater protein denaturation and subsequent loss of water holding capacity as manifested in increased cooking losses. 4. Quadratic regression curves showed that over the pH15min range 6.80 to 6.30, only the fast chilling regimen at -12 degrees C could inhibit rigor shortening and minimise changes in cooking loss and shear force values. However, neither chilling regimen was effective in preventing severe rigor shortening, increased cooking losses and adverse toughness in carcases with pH15min values below 6.30. 5. The benefits of fast chilling carcases with pH15min values above 6.3 can also be quantified in terms of carcases exceeding a 4.00 kg/cm2 toughness threshold. Only 1.9% of these carcases chilled at -12 degrees C exceeded this limit (maximum shear force value of 4.72 kg/cm2) compared to 34.9% of the carcases chilled at 0 degrees C (maximum shear force value of 8.46 kg/cm2), further emphasising the considerable reduction in textural variability and improvement in tenderness gained by fast air-chilling at -12 degrees C. 相似文献
10.
This study was conducted to determine the relationship between bacteria destruction on poultry carcass skin and bacteria in raw ground poultry meat from the same carcasses. Immersion time in boiling water of broiler chicken whole carcasses required for maximum reduction of naturally occurring aerobic bacterial count on skin was measured. Treatments for chicken carcasses consisted of immersion in boiling water (approximately 95 degrees C) for 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, and 4 min. Four skin samples taken following treatment and three taken from subsequently ground carcass meat were analyzed for total aerobic plate counts (APC). Analysis of the data indicated a linear increase in bacterial destruction on skin with increased boiling water immersion time from 0 to 4 min. Reduction of skin bacteria to less than 1 log10 occurred at 3 min carcass immersion or longer. The analysis also indicated that treatment with boiling water and removal of skin was effective in reducing bacterial counts in ground meat to similar levels at all treatment times from 0.5 to 4.0 min. Findings from this study indicated that a boiling water immersion intervention and removal of skin could reduce subsequent bacteria contamination of ground meat. This intervention could minimize the risk of pathogen-contaminated primary processed poultry carcasses used in further processing. 相似文献
11.
Loncarevic, S., W. Tham and M.-L. Danielsson-Tham: Occurrence of Listeria species in broilers pre- and post-chilling in chlorinated water at two slaughterhouses. Acta vet. scand. 1994, 35, 149-154.–Altogether 323 pooled samples of neck skins from 1615 broilers from 2 processing plants (A and B) were examined for the presence of Listeria species. The broilers were sampled pre-chilling–after leaving the final rinser but before entering the chiller with chlorinated water–and post-chilling–immediately upon leaving the chiller. Free available chlorine in the chilling water varied from 2 to 15 ppm in plant A and was about 10 ppm in plant B. Listeria monocytogenes was only isolated from broilers in plant A sampled post-chilling (58% of 62 samples). L. innocua was isolated from 19% and 39% of broilers sampled pre-chilling in plants A and B, respectively. Post-chilling, L. innocua was isolated from 3% and 6% of samples from plants A and B, respectively. 相似文献
12.
Thormar H Hilmarsson H Thrainsson JH Georgsson F Gunnarsson E Dadadottir S 《British poultry science》2011,52(1):11-19
1. A previous study has shown that emulsions of monocaprin in citrate lactate buffer at pH 4·1-4·3 are highly active in killing Campylobacter in water, where they reduce viable bacterial counts by more than 6 log(10) colony forming units (cfu) in 1 min at a concentration of 1·25 mM (0·03%). 2. The present study was carried out to evaluate whether monocaprin emulsions could be used to kill Campylobacter on raw poultry. 3. It was shown that immersion of naturally contaminated chicken legs in 20 mM (0·5%) monocaprin emulsion at pH 4·1 for 1 min at 20°C reduced the number of Campylobacter by 2·0 to 2·7 log(10) cfu. Pre-chill dipping of whole carcases into 20 mM monocaprin emulsion in the slaughterhouse also caused a significant reduction in Campylobacter contamination. 4. Immersion in monocaprin emulsions at pH 4·1 was also assessed as a means to reduce the number of psychrotrophic spoilage bacteria. There were lower psychrotrophic bacteria counts on treated chicken parts than on untreated controls after storage at 3°C for up to 14 d. 5. Immersion in emulsions of monocaprin, which is a natural lipid classified as GRAS, may be a feasible method to reduce the number of Campylobacter and spoilage bacteria on raw poultry. This method could reduce the risk of human exposure to Campylobacter, and at the same time increase the shelf-life of poultry products. 相似文献
13.
The main source for Campylobacter spp. transmission from the environment to broiler chickens is still unclear. One implicated reservoir for the organism has been untreated broiler drinking water. This study was conducted with broilers first using experimental conditions (isolation units) and second under commercial conditions. We compared the rate of intestinal colonization in chickens provided 2 to 5 parts per million (ppm) chlorinated drinking water in relation to the frequency of colonization in chickens given unsupplemented drinking water. No significant difference (P > 0.05) was detected in isolation frequency or level of Campylobacter spp. colonization in birds provided chlorinated drinking water and control birds provided water without supplemental chlorine. In the isolation unit experiments, 86.3% (69/80) of the control and 85.0% (68/80) of the treated birds were colonized at levels corresponding to an average of 10(5.2) and 10(5.1) log colony-forming units (cfu) Campylobacter spp./g of cecal contents, respectively. Additionally, two sets of paired 20,000 bird broiler houses, with and without chlorination (2-5 ppm chlorine), were monitored in a commercial field trial. Effectiveness of chlorination was judged by prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in fecal droppings (960 samples) taken from the flocks in treated and control houses. Birds from the control houses were 35.5% (175/493) Campylobacter spp. positive, while 45.8% (214/467) of the samples from the houses having chlorinated drinking water yielded the organism. Chlorination of flock drinking water at the levels tested in this study was not effective in decreasing colonization by Campylobacter spp. under commercial production practices presently used in the United States. 相似文献
14.
A total of 154 feral pig carcases and 81 kangaroo carcases were examined for the presence of Salmonella, coliforms and total aerobic counts. Approximately 34% of pig carcases yielded one or more serotypes of Salmonella, while about 11% of kangaroo carcases were contaminated with salmonella. The results differed widely between sampling occasions. A total of 13 serotypes were isolated from feral pigs with S. anatum (31 isolates) and S. typhimurium (9 isolates) being the predominant serotypes. Coliforms were isolated from approximately 90% of carcases. The mean log10 coliform count on feral pigs was 4.39 +/- 1.45/g and the mean log10 total count was 6.15 +/- 1.15/g. About 21% of carcases were contaminated with more than 100,000 coliforms/g. A total 3 serotypes were isolated from kangaroos (S. bahrenfeld, S. binza, and S. onderstepoort). The mean log10 coliform count on kangaroos was 3.54 +/- 1.04. More than 50% of kangaroo carcases were contaminated with less than 100 coliforms/g. About 15% of carcases were contaminated with more than 10,000 coliforms/g. The mean log10 total count was 5.2 +/- 1.01/g. 相似文献
15.
Allen VM Burton CH Wilkinson DJ Whyte RT Harris JA Howell M Tinker DB 《British poultry science》2008,49(3):233-240
1. The present systems for cleaning the plastic crates (drawers) used to transport live poultry to the processing plant are known to be inadequate for removing microbial contamination. 2. To investigate possible improvements, a mobile experimental rig was constructed and operated in the lairage of a poultry processing plant. The cleaning rig could simulate the conditions of commercial cleaning systems and utilise freshly emptied crates from the processing plant. 3. The aim of the study was to improve cleaning by enhancing the removal of adherent organic material on the crates and by reducing microbial contamination by at least 4 log(10) units. 4. Trials showed that the most effective treatments against Campylobacter were either (a) the combination of soaking at 55 degrees C, brushing for 90 s, washing for 15 s at 60 degrees C, followed by the application of disinfectant (Virkon S in this study) or (b) the use of ultrasound (4 kW) at 65 degrees C for 3 to 6 min, with or without mechanical brushing of crates. 5. Both of these treatments also achieved a 4 log(10) reduction or more in the counts of Enterobacteriaceae but were less effective in reducing aerobic plate counts. 6. It was noted that there was little correlation between the visual assessment of crate cleanliness and microbiological counts. 7. It was concluded that the demonstrated enhanced cleaning could contribute significantly to overall hygiene control in poultry meat production. 相似文献
16.
(1) A comparative study on the effect of different surface decontaminants: hot water at 70 degrees C for one minute; 2% lactic acid for 30 s; 1200 p.p.m. acidified sodium chlorite (ASC) solution for 5 s and 50 p.p.m. chlorine solution for 5 min in the form of dips and sprays on the surface of dressed broilers for 0, 24 and 48 h of storage was conducted. (2) The variables studied were, total plate count (TPC), presumptive coliform count (PCC), pH and extract release volume (ERV). All treatments reduced TPC and PCC. (3) Lactic acid dip and hot water dip were the most effective for reducing TPC (1.36 and 1.28 log/cm2, respectively) with no significant difference between them. (4) ASC and hot water in dip could diminish PCC (1.37 and 1.34 log/cm2, respectively) and did not vary significantly. (5) No treatment affected muscle pH, water holding capacity (WHC), ERV, appearance, smell, tenderness and overall acceptability of treated broilers significantly. (6) Hot water treatment is the cheapest, most convenient and simplest decontamination technique for hygienic and wholesome poultry production. 相似文献
17.
1. Three experiments were conducted to establish the degree to which cold shortening and rigor shortening contribute to variability in the texture of Pectoralis major (PM) muscles of commercially processed broiler carcases chilled at different rates.
2. In the first experiment, free range and standard broiler carcases were air‐chilled under normal commercial conditions at 0°C. Strong negative correlations between pH values 15 min post‐mortem (pH15 min) and sarcomere length indicated that some cold shortening had occurred, while evidence supporting the occurrence of rigor shortening was much weaker. Regardless of the cause of muscle shortening, weak negative correlations between shear force and sarcomere length indicated that shorter sarcomeres were associated with tougher meat. In addition, strong negative correlations between pH values 24 h post‐mortem (pH24 h) and cooking losses suggested that increased juiciness is associated with higher ultimate pH values.
3. In the second experiment, carcases were either chilled rapidly in water at 0°C (23 h) or in water at 10°C (10 h or 23 h) to identify the individual contributions of cold and rigor shortening to textural variability more precisely. In carcases chilled rapidly in water at 0°C, textural variability was low and toughness was absent, suggesting an absence of both cold and rigor shortening. However, few of these carcases had pH15 min values sufficently high (≥ 6.70) to promote a cold shortening effect. In contrast, carcases chilled in water at 10°C, which had a similar deep muscle cooling rate as air‐chilling at 0°C, showed evidence of rigor shortening, because they had a wider range of sarcomere lengths and higher shear force values than carcases chilled in water at 0°C.
4. In the final experiment, carcases were either chilled in air at – 12°C, a cooling rate similar to that of water‐chilling at 0°C, or chilled in air at 0°C. Cold shortening and increased toughness was evident with both chilling regimens in those carcases with pH15 min values ≥ 6.70. In contrast, in carcases with pH15 min values < 6.70, both chilling regimens reduced sarcomere shortening and improved tenderness. However, the mean shear value of the carcases chilled in air at – 12°C was almost 1.00 kg cm–2 lower than diose chilled in air at 0°C.
5. In conclusion, both cold shortening and rigor shortening can occur during the commercial air‐chilling of broilers at 0°C and thereby contribute considerably to textural variability and incidences of toughness. Faster chilling, either in water at 0°C or in air at – 12°C, has been shown to eliminate the risk of adverse rigor shortening and toughness. 相似文献
18.
Allen VM Whyte RT Burton CH Harris JA Lovell RD Atterbury RJ Tinker DB 《British poultry science》2008,49(4):423-428
1. Small sections cut from commercial crates used to transport live poultry to the processing plant were artificially contaminated with effluent taken from a commercial crate-cleaning system. 2. Laboratory trials, involving the immersion of these sections in an ultrasonic water bath (4 kW energy) showed that aerobic plate counts (APC) and counts of Enterobacteriaceae were progressively reduced as the immersion time was increased from 0 to 120 s and the water temperature raised from 35 to 58 degrees C. 3. In subsequent trials at a processing plant, using commercially cleaned crates, there was relatively little effect of ultrasound (or pressure washing) on the biofilm present. However, ultrasonic treatment in combination with an immersion temperature of 60 degrees C reduced counts of Enterobacteriaceae to below the detection limit (log(10) 2.3 cfu) within 1 to 3 min, while APC were reduced by >2 log(10) units after 3 min. 4. It was concluded that ultrasonic treatment has a possible role in the crate-cleaning process, when used in conjunction with higher immersion temperatures. In this way, it could contribute significantly to hygiene control. 相似文献
19.
Immersion of knives momentarily in hot water (82 degrees C) was ineffective in destroying salmonellas on knives used in a meatworks to carry out the bung dropping operation. Laboratory experiments confirmed that knives covered with meat products required 10 or more seconds to be effectively decontaminated at this temperature. Examination of knives used for slaughtering and for dressing beef carcases showed that knives coming into contact with hides had higher counts for salmonella and a higher percentage positive than knives used for other cutting operations. Knives used for cutting the skin of the forelegs and hindlegs had the highest counts. 相似文献
20.
1. Experiments were designed to determine whether composting could be a safe and effective method for the disposal of poultry carcases in the UK climate. Laying hen carcases (125) were composted in a wooden compost bin over autumn and winter months, using the United States Department of Agriculture method. 2. The process took 8 weeks and effectively decomposed the carcases to leave only leg and breast bones. The compost was turned once, which ensured that all the material reached the high temperatures (60 degrees to 70 degrees C) required to control pathogens. Salmonella was fully heat-inactivated, indicating that many poultry-associated bacterial pathogens would also have been inactivated. 3. It is concluded that this method is suitable for use in the UK and provides a sanitised fertiliser supplement. 相似文献