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1.
High year-to-year variability in the incidence of Fusarium spp. and mycotoxin contamination was observed in a two-year survey investigating the impact of maize ear rot in 84 field samples from Germany. Fusarium verticillioides, F. graminearum, and F. proliferatum were the predominant species infecting maize kernels in 2006, whereas in 2007 the most frequently isolated species were F. graminearum, F. cerealis and F. subglutinans. Fourteen Fusarium-related mycotoxins were detected as contaminants of maize kernels analyzed by a multi-mycotoxin determination method. In 2006, a growth season characterized by high temperature and low rainfall during anthesis and early grain filling, 75% of the maize samples were contaminated with deoxynivalenol, 34% with fumonisins and 27% with zearalenone. In 2007, characterized by moderate temperatures and frequent rainfall during the entire growth season, none of the 40 maize samples had quantifiable levels of fumonisins while deoxynivalenol and zearalenone were detected in 90% and 93% of the fields, respectively. In addition, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxnivalenol, moniliformin, beauvericin, nivalenol and enniatin B were detected as common contaminants produced in both growing seasons. The results demonstrate a significant mycotoxin contamination associated with maize ear rots in Germany and indicate, with regard to anticipated climate change, that fumonisins-producing species already present in German maize production may become more important.  相似文献   

2.
The distribution and co‐occurrence of four Fusarium species and their mycotoxins were investigated in maize samples from two susceptible cultivars collected at 14 localities in South Africa during 2008 and 2009. Real‐time PCR was used to quantify the respective Fusarium species in maize grain, and mycotoxins were quantified by multi‐toxin analysis using HPLC‐MS. In 2008, F. graminearum was the predominant species associated with maize ear rot in the eastern Free State, Mpumalanga and KwaZulu‐Natal provinces, while F. verticillioides was predominant in the Northwest, the western Free State and the Northern Cape provinces. In 2009, maize ear rot infection was higher and F. graminearum became the predominant species found in the Northwest province. Fusarium subglutinans was associated with maize ear rot in both years at most of the localities, while F. proliferatum was not detected from any of the localities. Type B trichothecenes, especially deoxynivalenol, and zearalenone were well correlated with the amount of F. graminearum, fumonisins with F. verticillioides, and moniliformin and beauvericin with F. subglutinans. This information is of great importance to aid understanding of the distribution and epidemiology of Fusarium species in South Africa, and for predicting mycotoxin contamination risks and implementing preventative disease management strategies.  相似文献   

3.
Several Fusarium species occurring worldwide on maize as causal agents of ear rot, are capable of producing mycotoxins in infected kernels, some of which have a notable impact on human and animal health. The main groups of Fusarium toxins commonly found are: trichothecenes, zearalenones, fumonisins, and moniliformin. In addition, beauvericin and fusaproliferin have been found in Fusarium-infected maize ears. Zearalenone and deoxynivalenol are commonly found in maize red ear rot, which is essentially caused by species of the Discolour section, particularly F. graminearum. Moreover, nivalenol and fusarenone-X were often found associated with the occasional occurrence of F. cerealis, and diacetoxyscirpenol and T-2 toxin with the occurrence of F. poae and F. sporotrichioides, respectively. In addition, the occurrence of F. avenaceum and F. subglutinans usually led to the accumulation of moniliformin. In maize pink ear rot, which is mainly caused by F. verticillioides, there is increasing evidence of the wide occurrence of fumonisin B1. This carcinogenic toxin is usually found in association with moniliformin, beauvericin, and fusaproliferin, both in central Europe due to the co-occurrence of F. subglutinans, and in southern Europe where the spread of F. verticillioides is reinforced by the widespread presence of F. proliferatum capable of producing fumonisin B1, moniliformin, beauvericin, and fusaproliferin.  相似文献   

4.
Fusarium proliferatum, F. subglutinans and F. verticillioides are the most important Fusarium species occurring on maize world-wide, capable of producing a wide range of mycotoxins which are a potential health hazard for animals and humans. The ribosomal internal transcribed spacer and a portion of the calmodulin gene were sequenced and analysed in order to design species-specific primers useful for diagnosis. The primer pairs were based on a partial calmodulin gene sequence. Three pairs of primers (PRO1/2, SUB1/2 and VER 1/2) produced PCR products of 585, 631 and 578bp for F. proliferatum, F. subglutinans and F. verticillioides, respectively. Primer specificity was confirmed by analyzing DNA of 150 strains of these species, mostly isolated from maize in Europe and USA. The sensitivity of primers was 12.5 pg when the pure total genomic DNA of each species was analyzed. The developed PCR assay should provide a powerful tool for the detection of toxigenic fungi in maize kernels.  相似文献   

5.
Fusarium poses food and feed safety problems because most species produce mycotoxins. To understand the epidemiology of the Fusarium disease, efforts must focus more precisely on how environmental variables affect disease presence. The objectives of the present study were to monitor the occurrence of Fusarium species in maize kernels in northwestern Spain to determine the risk of mycotoxin contamination and to identify environmental traits affecting the composition of the Fusarium species identified. A combination of 24 environments was evaluated. The percentage of kernels infected by F. verticillioides ranged from 33 to 99%, supporting the idea that fumonisin contamination is the main maize‐based feed and food safety concern in this area. In this region, temperature and humidity primarily affected Fusarium spp. occurrence. Warmer temperatures during the later stages of kernel development and during kernel drying increased the frequency of F. verticillioides in maize kernels, while the presence of F. subglutinans was increased by higher relative humidity during the silking stage and cooler temperatures during kernel drying.  相似文献   

6.
In order to investigate the pre-harvest contamination of maize plants by Fusarium species in Belgium, a three-year survey has been performed in five fields in which three hybrids differing in susceptibility to maize stalk rot were sampled at four different physiological stages. An extensive collection of 5,659 Fusarium isolates characterized at the species level was established during the 2005, 2006, and 2007 growing seasons, with a total of 23 different Fusarium species identified to occur on ears and stalks. A high number of plants was already contaminated by Fusarium spp. at the anthesis stage, although no symptoms were visible on ears or on stalks. As the season progressed, the incidence of Fusarium-infected maize plants reached 100% in several fields. At the end of the growing season, the most frequently isolated species in maize ears were F. graminearum, sometimes associated with F. avenaceum, F. crookwellense, F. culmorum, F. poae, and F. temperatum, a new species recently described on maize. The predominant Fusarium species detected in stalks at the end of the growing season were F. graminearum and F. crookwellense, often associated with F. culmorum and F. temperatum. Year-to-year variability observed for the incidence of F. graminearum can most likely be associated with differences in climatic conditions among the three years.  相似文献   

7.
Epidemiology of Fusarium Diseases and their Mycotoxins in Maize Ears   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
Fusarium species cause two distinct diseases on ears of maize, Fusarium ear rot (or pink ear rot) and Gibberella ear rot (or red ear rot), both of which can result in mycotoxin contamination of maize grain. The primary causal agent for Fusarium ear rot is Fusarium verticillioides, but F. subglutinans and F. proliferatum are also important. Gibberella ear rot is caused primarily by F. graminearum, but F. culmorum can also be important, especially in Europe. Aspects of the epidemiology of both diseases have been studied for decades, but only recently have efforts been made to synthesize this information into comprehensive models of disease development. Much of the work on F. graminearum has focused on Fusarium head blight of small-grain crops, but some of the results obtained are also relevant to maize. The primary mycotoxins produced by these fungi, fumonisins and deoxynivalenol, have differing roles in the disease-cycle, and these roles are not completely understood, especially in the case of fumonisins. Progress is being made toward accurate models for risk assessment of both diseases, but key challenges remain in terms of integrating models of pre- and post-infection events, quantifying the roles of insects in these diseases, and characterizing interactions among competing fungi and the environment.  相似文献   

8.
The occurrence of Fusarium species of Liseola section and related toxins was investigated for two years (1996 and 1998) on maize ear rot samples collected in the most important areas for maize growing in Slovakia. The species most frequently isolated was F. verticillioides, followed by F. proliferatum in 1996 and F. subglutinans in 1998. Most of the strains belonged to mating populations A, D, and E of the teleomorph Gibberella fujikuroi. Fusarium graminearum was also frequently recovered in both the years of investigations. Toxin analysis of maize ears showed that most of the samples (21 out of 22) were contaminated with at least one toxin. In particular, the concentration of fumonisin B1, and fumonisin 2 was up to 26.9 and 5.1gg-1, respectively in 1996, and up to 12.1 and 6.3gg-1, respectively in 1998. Beauvericin was detected only in one sample in 1996. Seven samples in 1996 were contaminated by fusaproliferin up to 8.2gg-1, but just traces of the toxin were found in one sample in 1998. All 29 strains of F. verticillioides, two of three strains of F. proliferatum and none of eight F. subglutinans strains isolated from samples produced fumonisin B1 in culture on whole maize kernels (0.1–5646 and 940–1200ugg-1, respectively). Two strains of F. subglutinans and two of F. proliferatum produced beauvericin (up to 65 and 70gg-1, respectively). Ten strains of F. verticillioides produced beauvericin: 9 strains produced a low amount (up to 3gg-1), while only one of them produced a high level of toxin (375gg-1). Fusaproliferin was produced by two F. proliferatum strains (220 and 370gg-1), by seven F. subglutinans (20–1335gg-1) and by three F. verticillioides (10–35gg-1). This is the first report on fusaproliferin production by F. verticillioides, although at low level.  相似文献   

9.
黄淮海夏玉米主产区穗腐病病原菌的分离鉴定   总被引：6，自引：0，他引：6  
为明确我国黄淮海夏玉米主产区玉米穗腐病的病原菌种类、优势种群及虫害、年度、省份对病原菌的影响,以形态学为基础,结合分子生物学方法对2013、2015年随机采自河南、河北、山东3省的155份玉米穗腐病样品进行分离鉴定。结果表明,引起黄淮海夏玉米主产区玉米穗腐病的主要致病菌为镰孢菌Fusarium spp.,包括拟轮枝镰孢F.verticillioides、禾谷镰孢F.graminearum、层出镰孢F.proliferatum、木贼镰孢F.equiseti及藤仓镰孢F.fujikuroi,分离频率分别为49.7%、28.4%、12.3%、3.9%和1.3%;其次为木霉菌Trichoderma spp.,包括哈茨木霉T.harzianum、绿色木霉T.viride和棘孢木霉T.asperellum,分离频率分别为8.4%、3.2%和5.2%;青霉菌Penicillium spp.分离频率较低,为14.2%;曲霉菌Aspergillus spp.包括黑曲霉A.niger和黄曲霉A.flavus,分离频率分别为2.6%和1.9%。研究表明,黄淮海主产区玉米穗腐病优势病原菌为拟轮枝镰孢、禾谷镰孢和木霉菌,不同省份不同年度间病原菌种类及优势病原菌存在差异,虫害能加重玉米穗腐病的发生。  相似文献   

10.
Bt-transformed maize contains genes from Bacillus thuringiensis encoding for insecticidal crystal proteins. Less insect damage on Bt maize stalks can cause a reduced infection by Fusarium species through plant injuries. This could affect the presence of plant-pathogenic Fusarium species on maize residues which serve as an inoculum source for subsequent crops. We collected overwintered maize stalks of four different Bt maize hybrids and their corresponding non-Bt lines in two consecutive years in a field trial in Germany. Fusarium spp. were isolated from 67% of 648 collected maize stalks. Identification with new multiplex PCR assays showed that F. graminearum, F. avenaceum, and F. proliferatum were the most abundant Fusarium species, isolated from 42%, 26%, and 15% of the stalks, respectively. Species abundances varied between varieties and collection years. No consistent difference was found between Bt and non-Bt stalks. Fusarium graminearum isolates were subject to a population genetic structure analysis with eight newly developed microsatellites. Significant association of loci and overrepresentation of repeated multilocus haplotypes indicated a substantial asexual component of reproduction, supporting selection of haplotypes. The data suggested selection of particular F. graminearum haplotypes by collection years but not by maize Bt transformation. Haplotypic changes between years caused no divergence in the distribution of alleles, suggesting that gene flow beyond the field scale prevented substructuring. We present evidence for gene flow between our saprophytic F. graminearum population on maize residues and a wheat-pathogenic population from a field 100 km distant.  相似文献   

11.
The development of new maize hybrids with resistance to Fusarium infection is an effective means of minimizing the risk of mycotoxin contamination. Several maize hybrids have been investigated for Fusarium ear rot and accumulation of fumonisin B1 (FB1), fumonisin B2 (FB2), beauvericin (BEA) and fusaproliferin (FP) after artificial inoculation in the field with toxigenic strains of Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum. The year of inoculation had a significant influence on the disease severity and mycotoxin accumulation in maize kernels. Of all the hybrids tested, only Mona exhibited resistance to ear rot caused by F. verticillioides and produced low levels of fumonisins during three years of experiments. In Fusarium-damaged kernels (FDK), fumonisin B1, fumonisin B2, beauvericin and fusaproliferin were detected at concentrations much higher (up to 10–20 times) than in healthy-looking kernels (HLK). Animal and human exposure to these mycotoxins can be drastically reduced by removing mouldy and visibly damaged kernels from the commodity.  相似文献   

12.
The phytotoxicity of the Fusarium trichothecene and fumonisin mycotoxins has led to speculation that both toxins are involved in plant pathogenesis. This subject has been addressed by examining virulence of trichothecene and fumonisin-nonproducing mutants of Fusarium in field tests. Mutants were generated by transformation-mediated disruption of genes encoding enzymes that catalyze early steps in the biosynthesis of each toxin. Two economically important species of Fusarium were selected for these studies: the trichothecene-producing species Fusarium graminearum, which causes wheat head blight and maize ear rot, and the fumonisin-producing species F. verticillioides, which causes maize ear rot. Trichothecene-non-producing mutants of F. graminearum caused less disease than the wild-type strain from which they were derived on both wheat and maize, although differences in virulence on maize were not observed under hot and dry environmental conditions. Genetic analyses of the mutants demonstrated that the reduced virulence on wheat was caused by the loss of trichothecene production rather than by a non-target mutation induced by the gene disruption procedure. Although the analyses of virulence of fumonisin-non-producing mutants of F. verticillioides are not complete, to date, the mutants have been as virulent on maize ears as their wild-type progenitor strains. The finding that trichothecene production contributes to the virulence of F. graminearum suggests that it may be possible to generate plants that are resistant to this fungus by increasing their resistance to trichothecenes. As a result, several researchers are trying to identify trichothecene resistance genes and transfer them to crop species.  相似文献   

13.
Fusarium head blight (FHB) is an important fungal disease of wheat. The aim of this research was to determine the diversity of Fusarium species infecting winter wheat ears in East Croatia. In 2008 wheat kernels were obtained from three locations in the eastern part of Croatia (Tovarnik, Osijek, Pozega), and in 2009 from two additional locations (Slavonski Brod, Nova Gradiska). In total, 498 visually diseased kernels were selected for morphological identification of Fusarium spp. The identity of 226 selected isolates was further investigated by molecular techniques. The predominant species on wheat kernels in East Croatia in 2008 were F. graminearum, isolated and confirmed from more than 80% of sampled wheat kernels, followed by F. avenaceum (8%) and F. culmorum (7%). Incidence of F. poae was less than 2%. The most common species identified in 2009 were F. graminearum (50%), F. culmorum (13%), F. avenaceum (12%) and F. poae (7%). This is the first report on the identification of Fusarium species isolated from naturally infected wheat ears in Croatia.  相似文献   

14.
Recent data on the epidemiology of the common mycotoxigenic species of Fusarium, Alternaria, Aspergillus and Penicillium in infected or colonized plants, and in stored or processed plant products from the Mediterranean area are reviewed. Emphasis is placed on the toxigenicity of the causal fungal species and the natural occurrence of well known mycotoxins (aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes, zearalenone, patulin, Alternaria-toxins and moniliformin), as well as some more recently described compounds (fusaproliferin, beauvericin) whose toxigenic potential is not yet well understood. Several Fusarium species reported from throughout the Mediterranean area are responsible of the formation of mycotoxins in infected plants and in plant products, including: Fusarium graminearum, F. culmorum, F. cerealis, F. avenaceum, F. sporotrichioides and F. poae, which produce deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, fusarenone, zearalenone, moniliformin, and T-2 toxin derivatives in wheat and other small grains affected by head blight or scab, and in maize affected by red ear rot. Moreover, strains of F. verticillioides, F. proliferatum, and F. subglutinans, that form fumonisins, beauvericin, fusaproliferin, and moniliformin, are commonly associated with maize affected by ear rot. Fumonisins, were also associated with Fusarium crown and root rot of asparagus and Fusarium endosepsis of figs, caused primarily by F. proliferatum. Toxigenic A. alternata strains and associated tenuazonic acid and alternariols were commonly found in black mould of tomato, black rot of olive and citrus, black point of small cereals, and black mould of several vegetables. Toxigenic strains of A. carbonarius and ochratoxin A were often found associated with black rot of grapes, whereas toxigenic strains of A. flavus and/or P. verrucosum, forming aflatoxins and ochratoxin A, respectively, were found in moulded plant products from small cereals, peanuts, figs, pea, oilseed rape, sunflower seeds, sesame seeds, pistachios, and almonds. Finally, toxigenic strains of P. expansum and patulin were frequently found in apple, pear and other fresh fruits affected by blue mould rot, as well as in derived juices and jams.  相似文献   

15.
The average amount of precipitation in spring and summer 2010 and 2011 coupled with relatively high temperatures caused massive Fusarium spp. infection of maize and yield losses in southern Poland. In order to examine the cause of this disease outbreak, Fusarium spp. were isolated and fungal strains were identified based on morphological characters and species-specific PCR assays. A total of 200 maize samples were processed, resulting in the obtention of 71 strains, which belonged to five Fusarium species, F. poae being the predominant one (74.56%). Other isolates were identified as F. graminearum, F. oxysporum, F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum. PCR-based detection of mycotoxin-synthesis-pathway genes was also used to determine the potential of the analyzed strains to produce trichothecenes (DON and NIV) and fumonisins (FUM). Only 14 isolates revealed the potential to produce DON (11 strains) and FUM (3 strains). HPLC analyses of grain samples revealed the presence of DON only – other mycotoxins were not detected. Moreover, 57.1% of potentially mycotoxin-producing isolates indicated the toxicity in a biological test.  相似文献   

16.
The Fusarium species predominantly found associated with Fusarium head blight (FHB) in wheat and other small-grain cereals all over Europe are F. graminearum, F. avenaceum and F. culmorum. Among the less frequently encountered species are several others which are less pathogenic or opportunistic, but also toxigenic. These include F. poae, F. cerealis F. equiseti F. sporotrichioides F. tricinctum and, to a lesser extent, F. acuminatum F. subglutinans F. solani F. oxysporum F. verticillioides F. semitectum and F. proliferatum. The species profile of FHB is due to several factors, primarily climatic conditions, particularly rain and the temperature at flowering stage, but also agronomic factors, such as soil cultivation, nitrogen fertilization, fungicides, crop rotation, and host genotype. The most frequently encountered Fusarium mycotoxins in FHB in Europe has proved to be deoxynivalenol and zearalenone produced by F. graminearum and F. culmorum with the former more common in southern (warmer) and the latter in northern (colder) European areas. Nivalenol was usually found associated with deoxynivalenol and its derivatives (mono-acetyldeoxynivalenols), together with fusarenone-X, formed by F. graminearum F. cerealis F. culmorum and, in northern areas, by F. poae. Moreover, from central to northern European countries, moniliformin has been consistently reported, as a consequence of the widespread distribution of F. avenaceum whereas the occurrence of T-2 toxin derivatives, such as T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin, and diacetoxyscirpenol have been recorded in conjunction with sporadic epidemics of F. sporotrichioides and F. poae. Finally, beauvericin and various enniatins have recently been found in Finnish wheat colonized by F.avenaceum and F. poae.  相似文献   

17.
A decline of unknown aetiology has become a major problem for commercial orchid production in Hawaii, one of the primary orchid‐producing states in the USA. The major symptoms of decline include root degradation, foliar blight, pseudobulb rot and sheath rot. It was unclear whether all these symptoms are caused by the same or different pathogens, but preliminary research indicated that Fusarium species may be involved. In this study, the incidence of Fusarium species was examined across 186 plants, from 29 orchid genera and intergeneric hybrids across three islands in the state of Hawaii. The main five species associated with diseased orchids were F. proliferatum (38% of samples), F. solani (16%), F. oxysporum (16%) and two previously undescribed species (8% for both species combined). The two undescribed species were similar in appearance to F. subglutinans, and were designated FS‐A and FS‐B. Pathogenicity tests established that both F. proliferatum and FS‐B caused foliar spots, foliar blight and pseudostem rot on Dendrobium orchids, and that F. proliferatum isolates from diseased tissue of several genera could also induce symptoms on Dendrobium orchids. Although orchids have increasing importance in floriculture, relatively little is known about orchid pathogens, and previous studies focused primarily on Cymbidium and Phalaenopsis. This study provides new information concerning Dendrobium orchid pathogens and suggests a much wider host range than previously recognized for the five Fusarium species recovered from tissue with symptoms. These findings can contribute to better management of Fusarium diseases, which represent a significant challenge to orchid production in Hawaii.  相似文献   

18.
Different sets of wheat genotypes were tested under field conditions by spraying inocula of isolates of seven Fusarium spp. and Microdochium nivale (formerly F. nivale) in the period 1998–2002. The severity of Fusarium head blight (FHB), Fusarium-damaged kernels (FDK), the yield reduction and the deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination were also measured to describe the nature of the resistance. The degrees of FHB severity of genotypes to F. graminearum, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae, F.␣verticillioides, F. sambucinum and M. nivale were very similar, indicating that the resistance to F.␣graminearum was similar to that for other Fusarium spp. listed. This is an important message to breeders as the resistance relates not only to any particular isolate of F. graminearum, but similarly to isolates of other Fusarium spp. This holds true for all the parameters measured. The DON contamination refers only to DON-producers F. graminearum and F. culmorum. Highly significant correlations were found between FHB, FDK, yield loss and DON contamination. Resistance components such as resistance to kernel infection, resistance to DON and tolerance were identified in the more susceptible genotypes. As compared with western European genotypes which produced up to 700 mg kg−1 DON, the Hungarian genotypes produced only 100 mg kg−1 at a similar FDK level. This research demonstrates the importance of measuring both FDK and DON in the breeding and selection of resistant germplasm and cultivars.  相似文献   

19.
Fusarium species causing maize kernel rot are major threats to maize production, due to reduction in yield as well as contamination of kernels by mycotoxins that poses a health risk to humans and animals. Two-hundred maize kernel samples, collected from 20 major maize growing areas in Ethiopia were analyzed for the identity, species composition and prevalence of Fusarium species and fumonisin contamination. On average, 38 % (range: 16 to 68 %) of maize kernels were found to be contaminated by different fungal species. Total of eleven Fusarium spp. were identified based on morphological characteristics and by sequencing the partial region of translation elongation factor 1-alpha (EF-1α) gene. Fusarium verticillioides was the dominant species associated with maize kernels (42 %), followed by F. graminearum species complex (22.5 %) and F. pseudoanthophilium (13.4 %). The species composition and prevalence of Fusarium species differed among the areas investigated. Fusarium species composition was as many as eight and as few as four in some growing area. The majority of the maize samples (77 %) were found positive for fumonisin, with concentrations ranging from 25 μg kg?1 to 4500 μg kg?1 (mean: 348 μg kg?1 and median: 258 μg kg?1). Slight variation in fumonisin concentration was also observed among areas. Overall results indicate widespread occurrence of several Fusarium species and contamination by fumonisin mycotoxins. These findings are useful for intervention measures to reduce the impact of the main fungal species and their associated mycotoxins, by creating awareness and implementation of good agricultural practices.  相似文献   

20.
Fusarium head blight of small-grain cereals, ear rot of maize, seedling blight and foot rot of cereals are important diseases throughout the world. Fusarium graminearum, F. culmorum, F. poae, F. avenaceum and Microdochium nivale (formerly known as F. nivale) predominantly cause Fusarium diseases of small-grain cereals. Maize is predominantly attacked by F. graminearum, F. moniliforme, F. proliferatum and F. subglutinans. These species differ in their climatic distribution and in the optimum climatic conditions required for their persistence. This review deals with the influence of climate on the production and dispersal of inocula, growth, competition, mycotoxin production and pathogenicity. Most species produce inocula, grow best, and are most pathogenic to cereal heads at warm temperatures and under humid conditions. However, the optimal conditions for F. moniliforme and F. proliferatum maize ear rot tend to be hot and dry and M. nivale head blight, seedling blight and foot rot of small-grain cereals tend to occur under cooler conditions. Seedling blight and foot rot caused by other species are favoured by warm dry weather. Between them, these fungi produce four important classes of mycotoxins: trichothecenes, zearalenone, fumonisins and moniliformin. Conditions favourable for in vitro growth are also generally the most favourable for mycotoxin production on cereal grains. These fungi rarely exist in isolation, but occur as a complex with each other and with other Fusaria and other fungal genera. Climatic conditions will influence competition between, and the predominance of, different fungi within this complex.  相似文献   

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