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1.
Fire is an important process in California closed-cone pine forests; however spatial variability in post-fire stand dynamics of these forests is poorly understood. The 1995 Vision Fire in Point Reyes National Seashore burned over 5000 ha, initiating vigorous Pinus muricata (bishop pine) regeneration in areas that were forested prior to the fire but also serving as a catalyst for forest expansion into other locales. We examined the post-fire stand structure of P. muricata forest 14 years after fire in newly established stands where the forest has expanded across the burn landscape to determine the important factors driving variability in density, basal area, tree size, and mortality. Additionally, we estimated the self-thinning line at this point in stand development and compared the size-density relationship in this forest to the theorized (−1.605) log-log slope of Reineke’s Rule, which relates maximum stand density to average tree size. Following the fire, post-fire P. muricata density in the expanded forest ranged from 500 to 8900 live stems ha−1 (median density = 1800 ha−1). Post-fire tree density and basal area declined with increasing distance to individual pre-fire trees, but showed little variation with other environmental covariates. Self-thinning (density-dependent mortality) was observed in nearly all stands with post-fire density >1800 stems ha−1, and post-fire P. muricata stands conformed to the size-density relationship predicted by Reineke’s Rule. This study demonstrates broad spatial variability in forest development following stand-replacing fires in California closed-cone pine forests, and highlights the importance of isolated pre-fire trees as drivers of stand establishment and development in serotinous conifers.  相似文献   

2.
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3.
We examined the effects of competition from red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.) and paper birch (Betula papyrifera Marsh.) on the growth of western redcedar (Thuja plicata Donn), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla Sarg.), and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii Franco) at a site near Maple Ridge, British Columbia, Canada. At this site, the three coniferous species and two broadleaf species had been planted in 1999 as part of a long-term experiment examining effects of broadleaf density on conifer growth. Red alder and paper birch were planted alone and as a 50:50 mixture at four densities (0, 277, 556, and 1150 stems ha−1).  相似文献   

4.
Changes in stand density, basal area, off-take and annual increment were determined from 18 permanent sample plots established in 1997 in Got Ramogi Forest in western Kenya. The plots were assessed in 2003 and 2008. A total of 824 stems ?1.5 m in height were recorded from 43 woody species. Key merchantable woody species comprised 20% of the woody species and 67% of the overall stem density. There was a significant reduction in the overall stand density and in the stem density of key merchantable woody species, but not among other woody species between 1997 and 2008. The basal area decreased significantly among key merchantable woody species, but not for the overall forest. The basal area decreased from 22.6 to 9.7 m2 ha−1 for key merchantable woody species. The stand volume of key merchantable woody species decreased from 156 m3 ha−1 in 1997 to 61.7 m3 ha−1 in 2008. The mean annual off-take declined from 10.3 m3 ha−1 year−1 between 1997 and 2003 to 9.1 m3 ha−1 year−1 between 2003 and 2008, while the mean annual increment increased from 2.9 to 3.3 m3 ha−1 year−1. It was predicted that forest recovery would surpass the 1997 stand volume of 156 m3 ha−1 if off-take levels between 10% and 90% of the mean annual increment were adopted. We settled on an annual allowable cut of 80% of the mean annual increment as a compromise between consumptive and conservation interests. We identified over-harvesting as the main cause of the reduction in stem density among key merchantable woody species. A management plan with compartment registers indicating the diversity, abundance and distribution of each woody species was recommended to guide their utilization and monitor their population dynamics.  相似文献   

5.
After a wildfire, the management of burnt wood may determine microclimatic conditions and microbiological activity with the potential to affect soil respiration. To experimentally analyze the effect on soil respiration, we manipulated a recently burned pine forest in a Mediterranean mountain (Sierra Nevada National and Natural Park, SE Spain). Three representative treatments of post-fire burnt wood management were established at two elevations: (1) “salvage logging” (SL), where all trees were cut, trunks removed, and branches chipped; (2) “non-intervention” (NI), leaving all burnt trees standing; and (3) “cut plus lopping” (CL), a treatment where burnt trees were felled, with the main branches lopped off, but left in situ partially covering the ground surface. Seasonal measurements were carried out over the course of two years. In addition, we performed continuous diurnal campaigns and an irrigation experiment to ascertain the roles of soil temperature and moisture in determining CO2 fluxes across treatments. Soil CO2 fluxes were highest in CL (average of 3.34 ± 0.19 μmol m−2 s−1) and the lowest in SL (2.21 ± 0.11 μmol m−2 s−1). Across seasons, basal values were registered during summer (average of 1.46 ± 0.04 μmol m−2 s−1), but increased during the humid seasons (up to 10.07 ± 1.08 μmol m−2 s−1 in spring in CL). Seasonal and treatment patterns were consistent at the two elevations (1477 and 2317 m a.s.l.), although respiration was half as high at the higher altitude.Respiration was mainly controlled by soil moisture. Watering during the summer drought boosted CO2 effluxes (up to 37 ± 6 μmol m−2 s−1 just after water addition), which then decreased to basal values as the soil dried. About 64% of CO2 emissions during the first 24 h could be attributed to the degasification of soil pores, with the rest likely related to biological processes. The patterns of CO2 effluxes under experimental watering were similar to the seasonal tendencies, with the highest pulse in CL. Temperature, however, had a weak effect on soil respiration, with Q10 values of ca. 1 across seasons and soil moisture conditions. These results represent a first step towards illustrating the effects of post-fire burnt wood management on soil respiration, and eventually carbon sequestration.  相似文献   

6.
Soil properties were compared in adjacent 50-year-old Norway spruce, Scots pine and silver birch stands growing on similar soils in south-west Sweden. The effects of tree species were most apparent in the humus layer and decreased with soil depth. At 20-30 cm depth in the mineral soil, species differences in soil properties were small and mostly not significant. Soil C, N, K, Ca, Mg, and Na content, pH, base saturation and fine root biomass all significantly differed between humus layers of different species. Since the climate, parent material, land use history and soil type were similar, the differences can be ascribed to tree species. Spruce stands had the largest amounts of carbon stored down to 30 cm depth in mineral soil (7.3 kg C m−2), whereas birch stands, with the lowest production, smallest amount of litterfall and lowest C:N ratio in litter and humus, had the smallest carbon pool (4.1 kg C m−2), with pine intermediate (4.9 kg C m−2). Similarly, soil nitrogen pools amounted to 349, 269, and 240 g N m−2 for spruce, pine, and birch stands, respectively. The humus layer in birch stands was thin and mixed with mineral soil, and soil pH was highest in the birch stands. Spruce had the thickest humus layer with the lowest pH.  相似文献   

7.
We studied the carbon density and accumulation in trees at five sites in a tropical dry forest (TDF) to address the questions: how is the TDF structured in terms of tree and carbon density in different DBH (diameter at breast height) classes? What are the levels of carbon density and accumulation in the woody species of TDF? Is the vegetation carbon density evenly distributed across the forest? Does carbon stored in the soil reflect the pattern of aboveground vegetation carbon density? Which species in the forest have a high potential for carbon accumulation? The WSG among species ranged from 0.39 to 0.78 g cm−3. Our study indicated that most of the carbon resides in the old-growth (high DBH) trees; 88-97% carbon occurred in individuals ?19.1 cm DBH, and therefore extra care is required to protect such trees in the dry forest. Acacia catechu, Buchanania lanzan, Hardwickia binata, Shorea robusta and Terminalia tomentosa accounted for more than 10 t ha−1 carbon density, warranting extra efforts for their protection. Species also differed in their capacity to accumulate carbon indicating variable suitability for afforestation. Annually, the forest accumulated 5.3 t-C ha−1 yr−1 on the most productive, wettest Hathinala site to 0.05 t-C ha−1 yr−1 on the least productive, driest Kotwa site. This study indicated a marked patchy distribution of carbon density (151 t-C ha−1 on the Hathinala site to 15.6 t-C ha−1 on the Kotwa site); the maximum value was more than nine times the minimum value. These findings suggest that there is a substantial scope to increase the carbon density and accumulation in this forest through management strategies focused on the protection, from deforestation and fire, of the high carbon density sites and the old-growth trees, and increasing the stocking density of the forest by planting species with high potential for carbon accumulation.  相似文献   

8.
We tested the hypothesis that overstorey of eucalypt forest dominated by tall, large diameter trees uses less water than regrowth stands in the high rainfall zone (>1100 mm year−1) of the northern jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest in southwestern Australia. We measured leaf area, cover, sapwood area and sapwood density at three paired old and regrowth stands. We also measured sapflow velocity at one paired stand (Dwellingup) from June 2007 to October 2008. Old stands had more basal area but less foliage cover, less leaf area and slightly thinner sapwood. The ratio of sapwood area to basal area decreased markedly as tree size increased. Sapwood area of the regrowth forest stands (6.6 ± 0.30 m2 ha−1) was nearly double that of the old stands (3.4 ± 0.17 m2 ha−1), despite larger basal area at the old stands. Leaf area index of the regrowth stands (2.1 ± 0.26) was only one-third larger than that at the old stands (1.5 ± 0.15); hence, the ratio of leaf area to sapwood area was larger in old stands than in regrowth stands (0.45 ± 0.022 m2 cm−2 versus 0.32 ± 0.045 m2 cm−2). Our results are consistent with theories that trees have evolved to optimize carbon gain rather than maintain stomatal conductance. Neither sapwood density (540–650 kg m−3) nor sap velocity differed greatly between regrowth and old stands. At the old forest site, daily transpiration rose from 0.5 mm day−1 in winter to 0.9 mm day−1 in spring–summer, compared to 0.9 mm day−1 and 1.8 mm day−1 at the regrowth site. Annual water use by the overstorey trees was estimated to be ∼230 mm year−1 for the old stand and ∼500 mm year−1 at the regrowth stand, or 20% and 44% of annual rainfall. The overwhelming role of stand sapwood area in determining stand water use, combined with the marked changes in the ratio of sapwood area to basal area with tree age and size, suggest that stand overstorey structure can be managed to alter overstorey water use and catchment water yield. Silviculture to promote old-forest-like attributes may be a viable means of delivering multiple water and conservation benefits.  相似文献   

9.
The main objectives were to study the effect of gap size and canopy openness on the natural regeneration dynamics considering the parameters of sapling growth, recruitment, mortality, density, species composition and above-ground biomass accumulation. The study was carried out in 32 artificial gaps with sizes varying from 100 to 1200 m2 and canopy openness from 10 to 45%, from the second to the twelfth year after gap creation. The gap size was measured using the vertical projection of the tree crowns on the ground (Brokaw's definition), and the canopy openness measurement by hemispherical photography. In the first five years, mean sapling growth (0.54 cm year−1), mortality (3.9% year−1) and AGB (26.2 Mg ha−1 or 8.7 Mg ha−1 year−1) were significantly higher in the gaps than in the forest understorey (0.17 cm year−1, 1.5% year−1 and −0.59 Mg ha−1 year−1 respectively) and positively correlated with gap size and canopy openness. In the same period, recruitment was also significantly higher in the gaps (5.8% year−1) than in the forest understorey (0.4% year−1) but decreased with gap size and negatively correlated with canopy openness. In the first five years, the relative density of pioneer species was higher in the gaps but not significantly correlated with gap size or canopy openness. AGB increased linearly since canopy opening, and twelve years after gap creation it was still higher in larger (121.2 Mg ha−1 or 10.1 Mg ha−1 year−1) rather than smaller (62.5 ha−1 or 5.2 ha−1 year−1) gaps. Twelve years after gap creation there were no significant differences in the parameters of sapling growth, recruitment, and mortality which could be attributed to the original gap size and canopy openness.  相似文献   

10.
We examined how the density, growth and survival of sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.) and yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis Britton) regeneration are influenced by gap size, soil nutrient availability and understory vegetation. We used a factorial combination of (1) three gap sizes (small: <100 m2; medium: 100–300 m2; large: ∼1000 m2); (2) presence/absence of liming (92% CaCO3 at 500 kg ha−1, 1st year post-harvest); and (3) presence/absence of vegetation control (weeding twice a year; 1st to 3rd year post-harvest). We monitored height increment and survival of 1500 seedlings and saplings of both species from the 3rd to the 6th year post-harvest, and assessed density 6 years post-harvest. Both species exhibited a complex set of density, growth and survival responses across the combination of treatments. Compared to sugar maple, yellow birch had an overall lower density, greater growth, and similar survival rate; the two species attained maximum values in different gap size for density, and similar gap size for growth and survival. Liming had very little or no effect on the species. The growth of yellow birch was slightly but significantly greater when understory vegetation was controlled, particularly in medium and large gaps. These results suggest that a variety of canopy gap sizes can provide the right combination of understory conditions for regenerating these two functionally different tree species.  相似文献   

11.
A typhoon event catastrophically destroyed a 45-year-old Japanese larch plantation in southern Hokkaido, northern Japan in September 2004, and about 90% of trees were blown down. Vegetation was measured to investigate its regeneration process and CO2 flux, or net ecosystem production (NEP), was measured in 2006–2008 using an automated chamber system to investigate the effects of typhoon disturbance on the ecosystem carbon balance. Annual maximum aboveground biomass (AGB) increased from 2.7 Mg ha−1 in 2006 to 4.0 Mg ha−1 in 2007, whereas no change occurred in annual maximum leaf area index (LAI), which was 3.7 m2 m−2 in 2006 and 3.9 m2 m−2 in 2007. Red raspberry (Rubus idaeus) had become dominant within 2 years after the typhoon disturbance, and came to account for about 60% and 50% of AGB and LAI, respectively. In comparison with CO2 fluxes measured by the eddy covariance technique in 2001–2003, for 4.5 months during the growing season, the sum of gross primary production (GPP) decreased on average by 739 gC m−2 (64%) after the disturbance, whereas ecosystem respiration (RE) decreased by 501 gC m−2 (51%). As a result, NEP decreased from 159 ± 57 gC m−2 to −80 ± 30 gC m−2, which shows that the ecosystem shifted from a carbon sink to a source. Seasonal variation in RE was strongly correlated to soil temperature. The interannual variation in the seasonal trend of RE was small. Light-saturated GPP (Pmax) decreased from 30–45 μmol m−2 s−1 to 8–12 μmol m−2 s−1 during the summer season through the disturbance because of large reduction in LAI.  相似文献   

12.
Wood is an important component of forested stream ecosystems, and stream restoration efforts often incorporate large wood. In most cases, however, stream restoration projects are implemented without information regarding the amount of wood that historically occurred or the natural rates of wood recruitment. This study uses a space-for-time analysis to quantify large wood loading to 28 streams in the northeastern US with a range of in-stream and riparian forest characteristics. We document the current volume and frequency of occurrence of large wood in streams with riparian forests varying in their stage of stand development as well as stream size and gradient. Linear models relating stream wood characteristics to stream geomorphic and forest characteristics were compared using Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC) model selection. The AIC analysis indicated that the volume and frequency of large wood and wood accumulations (wood jams) in streams was most closely associated with the age of the dominant canopy trees in the riparian forest (best models: log10(large wood volume (m3 100 m−1)) = (0.0036 × stand age) − 0.2281, p < 0.001, r2 = 0.80; and large wood frequency (number per 100 m) = (0.1326 × stand age) + 7.3952, p < 001, r2 = 0.63). Bankfull width was an important factor accounting for wood volume per unit area (m3 ha−1) but not the volume of wood per length of stream (100 m−1). The empirical models developed in this study were unsuccessful in predicting wood loading in other regions, most likely due to difference in forest characteristics and the legacy of forest disturbance. However, these models may be applicable in other streams in the northeastern US or in streams with comparable riparian forests, underlying geology, and disturbance regimes—factors that could alter long-term wood loading dynamics. Our results highlight the importance of understanding region-specific processes when planning stream restoration and stream management projects.  相似文献   

13.
Establishing white spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss) by planting it under established aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.), stands has substantial potential as a technique for regenerating boreal mixedwood stands. The presence of an aspen overstory serves to ameliorate frost and winter injury problems and suppresses understory vegetation that may compete with white spruce. In this study we examine the growth of white spruce during the first 10 years after being planted underneath a 39-year-old stand of trembling aspen following thinning and fertilization. Results indicate successful establishment and reasonable growth rates of white spruce planted under thinned and unthinned aspen stands, even with aspen basal area of 51 m2 ha−1. Thinning of overstory aspen to 1000 or 2000 stems ha−1 did not increase light reaching seedlings, but did result in improvements in light above the shrub layer and in diameter and height growth of the underplanted seedlings. However, these increases in growth of underplanted spruce may not justify the expense of thinnings. Fertilization of these stands prior to planting had no effect on spruce growth. Growth of spruce underplanted at this site near Fort Nelson was similar to that at two other stands near Dawson Creek, B.C.  相似文献   

14.
Pinus radiata D. Don trees from six clones, grown at initial spacings of 2500 stems ha−1 and 833 stems ha−1 were destructively harvested. For these trees wood properties were measured on radial slices sampled at a height of 1.4 m above the ground. Relative to wide spacing, close initial stand spacing significantly reduced microfibril angle (MFA) and ring width and significantly increased dynamic modulus of elasticity (MOE), fibre length, latewood percentage and cell wall thickness. Density and fibre width were not significantly different between spacing treatments. Examination of the influence of genetic population on wood properties indicated that genotype significantly influenced MFA, MOE and ring width. The key wood properties MFA, MOE and fibre length were regressed against tree diameter, height and stem slenderness. All three wood properties were most strongly correlated with stem slenderness. Multiple regression models developed for MFA, MOE and ring width accounted for respectively 62%, 81% and 58% of the variation in these variables. The following changes occurred in sampled properties with increasing ring number: MFA and ring width declined markedly; MOE and fibre length increased markedly; latewood percentage and cell wall thickness increased slightly; and density and fibre width did not show any radial trend.  相似文献   

15.
Grazing is a global, dominant land use affecting biodiversity and ecosystem processes. In Mediterranean ecosystems grazing is a major ecological and evolutionary driver but, surprisingly, there is little information on the use of grazing as a tool to manage biodiversity in these ecosystems. We conducted an experiment to assess if establishing grazing and small scale grazing-excluded areas would increase plant and invertebrate diversity in a Mediterranean evergreen oak woodland. Plant community traits were different between treatments. Biomass of herbs (176.7 ± 18.3 g m−2vs 100.4 ± 10.6 g m−2) and litter (291.0 ± 38.3 g m−2vs 186.8 ± 26.4 g m−2), as well as the total cover of legumes (0.83 ± 0.05 vs 0.91 ± 0.03) were higher, and the proportion of bare ground (0.83 ± 0.05 vs 0.91 ± 0.03) was lower, in ungrazed plots. There were no differences in the number of plant species between treatments. Some plant species and invertebrate taxa were recorded exclusively in grazed or ungrazed plots. Invertebrate detritivores and sap sucking insects were more abundant in ungrazed plots. Ant assemblages were functionally different between treatments: Honeydew-gatherer ants were associated with ungrazed and higher plant biomass plots, and seed-eaters as well as aggressive predator ant species were associated with grazed, open habitat, plots. Management practices that maintain grazing and small scale grazing-excluded areas can increase habitat heterogeneity and promote herbaceous plant and invertebrate diversity at the local level.  相似文献   

16.
Tropical montane cloud forest has been undergoing a drastic reduction because of its widespread conversion to pastures. Once these forests have been cleared exotic grasses are deliberately introduced for forage production. Exotic grass species commonly form monodominant stands and produce more biomass than native grass species, resulting in the inhibition of secondary succession and tree regeneration. The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of native vs. exotic grass species on the early establishment of two native tree seedlings (Mexican alder, Alnus acuminata and Jalapa oak, Quercus xalapensis) on an abandoned farm in central Veracruz, Mexico. Seedling survival and growth were monitored (over 46 weeks) in relation to grass cover and height, and available photosynthetic active radiation (PAR). More seedlings survived in the presence of the native grass Panicum glutinosum than those growing with the exotic grass Cynodon plectostachyus (92% vs. 48%). The causes of seedling mortality varied between species; Q. xalapensis was affected by herbivory by voles but mainly in the exotic grass-dominated stands, whereas A. acuminata seedlings died due to competition with the exotic grass. A. acuminata seedlings increased more in height in the exotic grass-dominated stands (102 ± 7.8 cm) compared to native grass-dominated stands (51 ± 4.7 cm). Grass layer height, cover and available PAR were correlated (Pearson; p < 0.05). In the exotic grass dominated plots, grass layer height was correlated with the relative height growth rates of Q. xalapensis (Pearson; p < 0.05). These results indicate that the exotic grass may be affecting tree regeneration directly (grass competition) and indirectly (higher herbivory). Passive restoration may occur once P. glutinosum dominated pastures are abandoned. However, when C. plectostachyus dominates, introduction of early and mid successional tree seedlings protected against vole damage is needed.  相似文献   

17.
Establishing white spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss) by planting it under established aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.), stands has substantial potential as a technique for regenerating boreal mixedwood stands. The presence of an aspen overstory serves to ameliorate frost and winter injury problems and suppresses understory vegetation that may compete with white spruce. In this study we examine the growth of white spruce during the first 10 years after being planted underneath a 39 year-old stand of trembling aspen following thinning and fertilization. Results indicate successful establishment and reasonable growth rates of white spruce planted under thinned and unthinned aspen stands, even with aspen basal area of 51 m2 ha−1. Thinning of overstory aspen to 1000 or 2000 stems ha−1 did not increase light reaching seedlings, but did result in improvements in light above the shrub layer and in diameter and height growth of the underplanted seedlings. However, these increases in growth of underplanted spruce may not justify the expense of thinnings. Fertilization of these stands prior to planting had no effect on spruce growth. Growth of spruce underplanted at this site near Fort Nelson was similar to that at two other stands near Dawson Creek, B.C.  相似文献   

18.
Over the coming decades, climate change will increasingly affect forest ecosystem processes, but the future magnitude and direction of these responses is uncertain. We designed 12 scenarios combining possible changes in tree growth rates, decay rates, and area burned by wildfire with forecasts of future harvest to quantify the uncertainty of future (2010-2080), timber growing stock, ecosystem C stock, and greenhouse gas (GHG) balance for 67 million ha of forest in British Columbia, Canada. Each scenario was simulated 100 times with the Carbon Budget Model of the Canadian Forest Sector (CBM-CFS3). Depending on the scenario, timber growing stock over the entire land-base may increase by 14% or decrease by 9% by 2080 (a range of 2.8 billion m3), relative to 2010. However, timber growing stock available for harvest was forecast to decline in all scenarios by 26-62% relative to 2010 (a range of 1.2 billion m3). Forests were an annual GHG source in 2010 due to an ongoing insect outbreak. If half of the C in harvested wood was assumed to be immediately emitted, then 0-95% of simulations returned to annual net sinks by 2040, depending on scenario, and the cumulative (2010-2080) GHG balance ranged from a sink of −4.5 Pg CO2e (−67 Mg CO2e ha−1) for the most optimistic scenario, to a source of 4.5 Pg CO2e (67 Mg CO2e ha−1) for the most pessimistic. The difference in total ecosystem carbon stocks between the most optimistic and pessimistic scenarios in 2080 was 2.4 Pg C (36 Mg C ha−1), an average difference of 126 Tg CO2e yr−1 (2 Mg CO2e yr−1 ha−1) over the 70-year simulation period, approximately double the total reported anthropogenic GHG emissions in British Columbia in 2008. Forests risk having reduced growing stock and being GHG sources under many foreseeable scenarios, thus providing further feedback to climate change. These results indicate the need for continued monitoring of forest responses to climatic and global change, the development of mitigation and adaptation strategies by forest managers, and global efforts to minimize climate change impacts on forests.  相似文献   

19.
Many old-growth forest stands in northwest Pakistan have been structurally transformed as a consequence of logging and livestock grazing, some of which are thereafter left to secondary succession. These forests represent an important resource for local inhabitants who gather and sell medicinal plants as part of their livelihood. With this in mind, the main objectives of our study were: (1) to assess differences in the structure of the tree layer and the abundance of medicinal plants among differently transformed forests, (2) to evaluate the recovery potential of medicinal plants under re-growth forests, and (3) to assess relationships between tree stand structural characteristics and the occurrence of medicinal plants.The first step of the study involved creating an approximate map covering an area of 90 km2 for five forest-use types (old-growth forest, forest degraded by logging, derived woodland, agroforest and re-growth forest). Fifteen plots per forest-use type were randomly allocated at altitudes ranging from 2200 m to 2400 m asl, within which the abundance of 10 locally important medicinal herb species was assessed.The study stands differed greatly in tree basal area, which was highest in old-growth forest (48 m2 ha−1), lowest in agroforest areas (6 m2 ha−1) and intermediate in re-growth forest (20 m2 ha−1). All ten medicinal plant species were encountered in old-growth and in re-growth forests, but only five of these species also occurred on agroforest plots. The mean coverage of study medicinal plants was highest in old-growth forest (7%), low in forest degraded by logging, derived woodland and agroforest (0.3-2%), and intermediate in re-growth forest (4%). The Jaccard abundance based similarity index indicates a considerable similarity (0.6) between re-growth and old growth forest for both trees and medicinal plants. The overall abundance of medicinal plants increased with increasing tree basal area and canopy cover. The abundance of some particular species decreased; however, the most sought-after medicinal species Bergenia ciliata, Valeriana jatamansi and Viola cancescens increased with tree basal area within specific forest-use type and also across forest-use types. In conclusion, our data suggest that anthropogenic forest degradation leads to a reduction in the abundance of economically viable medicinal plants for the study region. It is further indicated that this can be reversed if degraded forests are allowed to regenerate.  相似文献   

20.
Sudden oak death, caused by Phytophthora ramorum, is widely established in mesic forests of coastal central and northern California. In 2000, we placed 18 plots in two Marin County sites to monitor disease progression in coast live oaks (Quercus agrifolia), California black oaks (Q. kelloggii), and tanoaks (Lithocarpus densiflorus), the species that are most consistently killed by the pathogen in these areas. Through early 2008, the numbers of newly infected trees increased for all species. The infection rate for trees that were asymptomatic in 2000 was 5.0% y−1 for coast live oaks, 4.1% y−1 for black oaks and 10.0% y−1 for tanoaks. Mortality rates were 3.1% y−1 for coast live oaks, 2.4% y−1 for black oaks, and 5.4% y−1 for tanoaks. Mortality not attributed to P. ramorum was 0.54% y−1 for coast live oaks, and 0.75% y−1 for tanoaks. Weibull survival models of trees that were asymptomatic in 2000 provided overall median survival times of 13.7 y for coast live oaks, 13.8 y for black oaks, and 8.8 y for tanoaks. Survival of infected (bleeding) trees declined to 9.7 y for coast live oaks, 6.2 y for black oaks, and 5.8 y for tanoaks. Ambrosia beetle attacks on bleeding trees further reduced modeled survival times by 65–80%, reaffirming the earlier finding that beetle attacks on bleeding cankers considerably reduce survival. Across all plots, the modeled time for 90% of trees that were asymptomatic in 2000 to become infected is 36.5 y for coast live oaks and 15.4 y for tanoaks. There was a trend toward higher infection rates as tree diameter increased. Greater than 90% of living coast live oaks that failed during the study had extensive beetle tunneling at the site of the break. Disease intensity in coast live oaks at the plot level was positively associated with bay laurel (Umbellularia californica) basal area and negatively associated with Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii) basal area. This study demonstrates the use of survival modeling to characterize the effects of epidemic disease on different species and to project the future of forests infected with tree pathogens.  相似文献   

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