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1.
? Key message
Insurance might be an efficient tool to strengthen adaptation of forest management to climate change. A theoretical model under uncertainty is proposed to highlight the effect, on adaptation decisions, of considering adaptation efforts in forest insurance contracts. Results show that insurance is relevant to increase adaptation efforts under some realistic conditions on forest owner’s uncertainty and risk preferences, and on the observability or not of adaptation efforts.? Context
One of the challenges of forest adaptation to climate change is to encourage private forest owners to implement adaptation strategies.? Aims
We suggest the analysis of forest insurance contracts against natural hazards as a vector to promote the implementation of adaptation efforts by private forest owners.? Methods
We propose a theoretical model of insurance economics under risk and under uncertainty.? Results
Our results indicate that when climate change makes the probability of the occurrence of the natural event uncertain, then it may be relevant to include adaptation efforts in the insurance contract, leading to an increase in the adaptation efforts of risk-averse and uncertainty-averse forest owners. In addition, we show that the relevance of insurance as a vector to promote adaptation efforts is greater when the forest owner’s effort is unobservable by the insurer as compared to a situation of perfectly observable effort.? Conclusion
Under some realistic assumptions, the forest insurance contract seems to be a relevant tool to encourage forest owners to adapt to climate change.2.
Context
Recent policy changes in the USA direct agencies managing federal forests to analyze the potential effects of climate change on forest productivity, water resource protection, wildlife habitat, biodiversity, and other values.Aims
This paper describes methods developed to (1) assess current risks, vulnerabilities, and gaps in knowledge; (2) engage internal agency resources and external partners in the development of options and solutions; and (3) manage forest resources for resilience, not just in terms of natural ecosystems but in affected human communities as well.Methods
We describe an approach designed to characterize certain climate change effects on forests, and estimate the effectiveness of response options ranging from resistance to a realignment of management objectives.Results
Field testing on a 6,300 km2 area of conifer forest in the northwestern USA shows this decision model to be useful and cost-effective in identifying the highest sensitivities relating to vegetation management, biological diversity, water resources and forest transportation systems, and building consensus for adaptive strategies and actions.Conclusions
Results suggest that this approach is an effective means for guiding management decisions to adapt to the effects of climate change, and provides an empirical basis for setting budgetary and management priorities. 相似文献3.
Key message
Pertinence of alternative adaptation strategies to business as usual, namely reactive, active, and robust adaptation strategies, can be evaluated by incorporating the expected costs and benefits of adaptation, climate change uncertainty, and the risk attitudes of decision-makers.Context
Forest management is used to coping with risky and uncertain projections and estimates. However, climate change adds a major challenge and necessitates adaptation in many ways.Aims
This paper highlights the dependency of the decisions on adaptation strategies to four aspects of forest management: (i) the costs of mitigating undesirable climate change impacts on forests, (ii) the value of ecosystem goods and services to be sustained, (iii) uncertainties about future climate trajectories, and (iv) the attitude of decision-makers towards risk (risk aversion level).Methods
We develop a framework to evaluate the pertinence of reactive, active, and robust adaptation strategies in forest management in response to climate change.Results
Business as usual may still be retained if the value of the forest and cost of climate impacts are low. Otherwise, it is crucial to react and facilitate the resilience of affected forest resources or actively adapt in advance and improve forest resistance. Adaptation should be robust under any future climate conditions, if the value of the ecosystem, the impacts from climatic changes, and the uncertainty about climate scenarios are very high.Conclusion
The decision framework for adaptation should take into account multiple aspects of forest management under climate change towards an active and robust strategy.4.
? Context
The Kyoto Protocol allows the use of domestic forest carbon sequestration to offset emissions to a limited degree, while bioenergy as an unlimited emission reduction option receives substantial financial support in many countries.? Aim
The primary objective of this study was to analyze (1) whether these limits on forest carbon sequestration would be binding, thereby leading to inefficient mitigation, and (2) the total potential effect of the protocol on the greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes in the forest sector.? Methods
A partial equilibrium model of the Norwegian forest sector was used to quantify the GHG fluxes in a base scenario with no climate policy, a Kyoto Protocol policy (KP policy), and a policy with no cap on forest carbon sequestration (FC policy), assuming that the policies apply the rest of the century.? Results
Carbon offsets are higher under the KP policy than in the base scenario and likewise higher than under the FC policy in the short run, but the KP policy fails to utilize the forest carbon sequestration potential in the long run as it provides considerably less incentives to invest in forestry than the FC policy.? Conclusion
The KP increases the Norwegian forest sector’s climate change mitigation compared to no climate policy but less in the long run than a carbon policy with no cap on forest carbon credits. 相似文献5.
Integrating regional climate change into allometric equations for estimating tree aboveground biomass of Masson pine in China 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
Liyong Fu Xiangdong Lei Zongda Hu Weisheng Zeng Shouzheng Tang Peter Marshall Lin Cao Xinyu Song Li Yu Jingjing Liang 《Annals of Forest Science》2017,74(2):42
Key message
A climate-sensitive aboveground biomass (AGB) equation, in combination with nonlinear mixed-effects modeling and dummy variable approach, was developed to examine how climate change may affect the allometric relationships between tree diameter and biomass. We showed that such changes in allometry need to be taken into account for estimating tree AGB in Masson pine.Context
As a native species and being widely distributed in subtropical China, Masson pine (Pinus massoniana Lamb.) forests play a pivotal role in maintaining forest ecosystem functions and mitigation of carbon concentration increase at the atmosphere. Traditional biomass allometric equations do not account for a potential effect of climate on the diameter–biomass relationships. The amplitude of such an effect remains poorly documented.Aims
We presented a novel method for detecting the long-term (2041–2080) effects of climate change on the diameter–biomass relationships and the potential consequences for long-term changes of biomass accumulation for Masson pine.Methods
Our approach was based on a climate-sensitive AGB model developed using a combined nonlinear mixed-effects model and dummy variable approach. Various climate-related variables were evaluated for their contributions to model improvement. Heteroscedasticity was accounted for by three residual variance functions: exponential function, power function, and constant plus function.Results
The results showed that diameter at breast height, together with the long-term average of growing season temperature, total growing season precipitation, mean temperature of wettest quarter, and precipitation of wettest quarter, had significant effects on values of AGB. Excessive rain during the growing season and high mean temperature in the wettest quarter reduced the AGB, while a warm growing season and abundant precipitation in the wettest quarter increased the AGB.Conclusion
Climate change significantly affected the allometric scale of biomass equation. The new climate-sensitive allometric model developed in this study may improve biomass predictions compared with the traditional model without climate effects. Our findings suggested that the AGB of Masson pine trees with the same diameter at breast height under three climate scenarios including representative concentration pathway (RCP) 2.6, RCP 4.5, and RCP 8.5 in the future period 2041–2080 would increase by 24.8 ± 32.7% (mean ± standard deviation), 27.0 ± 33.4%, and 27.7 ± 33.8% compared with the constant climate (1950–2000), respectively. As a consequence, we may expect a significant regional variability and uncertainty in biomass estimates under climate change.6.
? Context
Two-thirds of Britain’s forest area is privately owned. Thus, understanding private forest owners and managers, and their attitudes to uncertainty and change, is essential for the success of climate change adaptation policies.? Aim
The aims of this study are to (1) assess how beliefs in climate change in the private sector have influenced forest management practices; (2) identify constraints related to changes in species choice and silvicultural systems; (3) analyse the implications for implementing climate change policy in forestry.? Method
Semi-structured interviews with key informants who provide advice to, or manage woodlands in, the private forest sector in north Wales.? Results
Woodland managers and some advisers are not generally convinced of a need to adapt. They feel the future is uncertain, more usually in relation to tree disease than to climate change itself. Species choice is the principle focus of adaptation activities and reveals a deep divide in opinion. Commercial advisors look to new exotics but are inhibited by absence of markets, while small-scale owners rely more on native genetic diversity.? Conclusions
Findings that are likely to apply widely include: the influential role of forest agents in forest management decisions including species choice; lack of confidence in climate change predictions, and in markets; more immediate concerns about tree pests and diseases; demand for leadership from the public sector, and for engagement amongst the private sector. Further research is needed across a wider area to test the variability in relationship between attitudes and behaviours, and local conditions including climate change predictions. 相似文献7.
? Context
The knowledge of how shrub–seedling interactions vary with summer drought, canopy opening, and tree species is crucial for adapting forest management to climate change.? Aims
The aim of this study was to assess variation in shrub–oak recruitment associations along a south–north drought climate gradient and between two levels of canopy cover in coastal dune forest communities in a climate change-adapted forest management perspective.? Material and methods
Mapped data of associational patterns of seedlings of three oak species with interspecific pooled shrubs were analyzed using a bivariate pair correlation function in 10 (0.315 ha) regeneration plots located in forest and recent gap sites along the climate gradient. An index of association strength was calculated in each plot and plotted against a summer moisture index.? Results
The association strength increased with increasing summer drought from wet south to dry north and from closed forests to gaps.? Conclusion
Consistent with facilitation theory, our results suggest that climate change may shift associational patterns in coastal dune forest communities towards more positive associations, in particular in canopy gaps. In a perspective of climate change, foresters may need to conserve understory shrubs in gaps in order to promote oak species regeneration. 相似文献8.
Héctor A. Bahamonde Guillermo Martínez Pastur María V. Lencinas Rosina Soler Yamina M. Rosas Brenton Ladd Sandra Duarte Guardia Pablo L. Peri 《Annals of Forest Science》2018,75(2):45
Key message
Soil texture and temperature-related variables were the variables that most contributed to Nothofagus antarctica forest height in southern Patagonia. This information may be useful for improving forest management, for instance related to the establishment of silvopastoral systems or selection of suitable sites for forest reforestation in southern Patagonia.Context
Changes in forest productivity result from a combination of climate, topography, and soil properties.Aims
The relative importance of edaphic and climatic variables as drivers of productivity in Nothofagus antarctica forests of southern Patagonia, Argentina, was evaluated.Methods
A total of 48 mature stands of N. antarctica were selected. For each study site, we measured the height of three mature dominant trees, as an indicator of productivity. Seven soil, five spatial, and 19 climatic features were determined and related to forest productivity. Through partial least squares regression analyses, we obtained a model that was an effective predictor of height of mature dominant trees in the regional data set presented here.Results
The four variables that most contributed to the predictive power of the model were altitude, temperature annual range, soil texture, and temperature seasonality.Conclusion
The information gathered in this study suggested that the incidence of the soil and temperature-related variables on the height of dominant trees, at the regionally evaluated scale, was higher than the effect of water-related variables.9.
Puskar N. Khanal Donald L. Grebner Ian A. Munn Stephen C. Grado Robert K. Grala James E. Henderson 《Small-Scale Forestry》2017,16(3):419-434
To implement effective climate change mitigation and carbon sequestration activities in the southern US, nonindustrial private forest landowner (NIPF) participation is necessary because of the significant area of forest land under their ownership. For policy implementation to involve this major ownership group in climate change mitigation activities in this region, it is important to understand their forest management motivations and understanding toward carbon sequestration. This study develops a regional typology of NIPF landowners based on reasons for owning forest land in the southern US. The specific goals were to: (1) segment NIPF landowners into smaller homogeneous groups based on reasons for owning forest land; (2) identify landownership characteristics and forest management behavior by ownership groups; and (3) assess their climate change beliefs and understanding of forest carbon sequestration by ownership groups. A principal component-cluster analysis of 735 responses to a mail questionnaire distributed to NIPF landowners in the southern US revealed three groups, which were named amenity, multi-objective, and timber-oriented landowners. The amenity group included 21% of the landowners, while the timber and multi-objective groups included 40% and 39% of the landowners, respectively. These landowner groups varied in terms of owner characteristics, forest species type and management behavior, climate change beliefs and understanding of carbon sequestration. The amenity and multi-objective owners tend to have more positive belief toward climate change than the timber group, but more landowners in each group indicated having poor understanding of forest carbon sequestration. The study fills a knowledge gap in research efforts by developing a regional typology of NIPF landowners and linking it with their forestry resources and management strategies along with their climate change beliefs and understanding of forest carbon sequestration. 相似文献
10.
Christopher Reyer Petra Lasch-Born Felicitas Suckow Martin Gutsch Aline Murawski Tobias Pilz 《Annals of Forest Science》2014,71(2):211-225
? Context
Projecting changes in forest productivity in Europe is crucial for adapting forest management to changing environmental conditions.? Aims
The objective of this paper is to project forest productivity changes under different climate change scenarios at a large number of sites in Europe with a stand-scale process-based model.? Methods
We applied the process-based forest growth model 4C at 132 typical forest sites of important European tree species in ten environmental zones using climate change scenarios from three different climate models and two different assumptions about CO2 effects on productivity.? Results
This paper shows that future forest productivity will be affected by climate change and that these effects depend strongly on the climate scenario used and the persistence of CO2 effects. We find that productivity increases in Northern Europe, increases or decreases in Central Europe, and decreases in Southern Europe. This geographical pattern is mirrored by the responses of the individual tree species. The productivity of Scots pine and Norway spruce, mostly located in central and northern Europe, increases while the productivity of Common beech and oak in southern regions decreases. It is important to note that we consider the physiological response to climate change excluding disturbances or management.? Conclusions
Different climate change scenarios and assumptions about the persistence of CO2 effects lead to uncertain projections of future forest productivity. These uncertainties need to be integrated into forest management planning and adaptation of forest management to climate change using adaptive management frameworks. 相似文献11.
Laura Heid Christophe Calvaruso Anjy Andrianantenaina André Granier Sébastien Conil Cyrille B. K. Rathgeber Marie-Pierre Turpault Bernard Longdoz 《Annals of Forest Science》2018,75(1):31
Key message
In order to record the seasonal changes in aboveground biomass production (trunk and branches) in a forest, changes in wood density must be taken into account. A 60-year-old beech forest displayed a large intra-annual variability in its aboveground woody biomass production efficiency. This variation followed a seasonal trend with a maximum during the summer while gross primary production was rather low.Context
In the current context of land use and climate change, there is a need to precisely quantify the carbon (C) balance of forest ecosystems, and more specifically, of C allocation to tree compartments.Aims
We quantified the seasonal changes in the aboveground biomass production (aBP) of a beech forest growing on two different soils: an alocrisol and a calci-brunisol. In addition, for the alocrisol ecosystem, we assessed the existence and degree of intra-annual variability in the ratio of wood aBP to gross primary production (GPP), i.e., the wood aBP efficiency.Methods
The study site is a 60-year-old beech forest in northeastern France. An eddy covariance tower records continuously net ecosystem exchange. To investigate the temporal changes in aBP, mini-cores were drilled and diameter at breast height measurements were taken on a monthly basis from 45 trees for both stands studied over 2014.Results
A clear difference in aBP was observed between the two soils with the alocrisol being more productive than the calci-brunisol. For the alocrisol, both woody aBP and GPP changed over the course of the year, reaching peak values during June (6 and 12.5 gC m?2 day?1, respectively). Wood applied bias photon-to-current efficiency aboveground Biomass Production Efficiency (aBPE) also showed important intra-annual variations, ranging from 0.09 in September to 0.58 in July. Wood density varied throughout the year, and not taking it into account would have led to an overestimation of aBP by as much as 20% in April and May.Conclusion
Our study highlights the importance of taking wood density into account for intra-annual studies of aBP. Wood aBPE cannot be considered as constant as it fluctuated from 0.09 to 0.58 throughout the year for an annual value of 0.34. The potential error in wood aBPE stemming from not taking these changes into account amounts to 15%.12.
Overview of methods and tools for evaluating future woody biomass availability in European countries
Susana Barreiro Mart-Jan Schelhaas Gerald Kändler Clara Antón-Fernández Antoine Colin Jean-Daniel Bontemps Iciar Alberdi Sonia Condés Marius Dumitru Angel Ferezliev Christoph Fischer Patrizia Gasparini Thomas Gschwantner Georg Kindermann Bjarki Kjartansson Pál Kovácsevics Milos Kucera Anders Lundström Gheorghe Marin Gintautas Mozgeris Thomas Nord-Larsen Tuula Packalen John Redmond Sandro Sacchelli Allan Sims Arnór Snorrason Nickola Stoyanov Esther Thürig Per-Erik Wikberg 《Annals of Forest Science》2016,73(4):823-837
13.
Key message
More and more environmental and resource economists are taking a particular interest in research on forest ecosystem services (FES), especially in a context of climate change. Spatial and temporal issues are crucial to economic analyses and for the design of conservation policies. Interdisciplinary research involving ecological and economic disciplines is a prerequisite for the more effective management of forest ecosystems.Context
Economists define non-market ecosystem services (ES) as public or common goods due to their characteristics of non-rivalry in terms of consumption and/or non-excludability. Just because they do not have a price does not mean that ES have no economic value because their social benefits are undoubtedly considerable. These features, associated with the market demand for timber and a poor climate risk assessment, may lead to the under-provision of non-market forest ES and the over-harvesting of timber.Aims
In this article, we review research questions that are central to the enhancement of FES provision. Beyond the economic modelling of the joint provision of FES, we focus on issues related to the design of public policies to guide forest management. The objective is to provide crucial insights concerning the importance of a spatial and sustainable provision of FES.Results
First, we provide an economic interpretation of the FES concept and a review of economic models of forest management. Second, we explain how spatial and temporal dimensions of FES can have major implications on their supply and demand. Both dimensions explain why FESs have to be taken into account in production decisions and public policies (including the design of payment for environmental services (PESs)).Conclusion
A better understanding of FES provision and public policies to be enhanced is not possible without accounting for spatial and temporal dimensions. This helps to analyse the impact of intervention on FES and the cost-effectiveness of economic instruments, implying a coordinated effort to bring together ecological and economic data and models.14.
Context
In the context of climate change, several forest adaptation options have to be advocated such as a shift to more resistant species.Aims
We provide an economic analysis of timber species change as a tool for adapting forests to climate change.Methods
We use the framework of cost–benefit analysis, taking uncertainty into account both exogenously (sensitivity analysis) and endogenously [(quasi-)option value calculations]. We apply the method to assess the economic rationale for converting Norway spruce stands to Douglas-fir in the French Black Mountain.Results
We find that the Douglas-fir conversion is land expectation value (LEV) maximizing under a wide range of a priori (subjective) probabilities attached to high mortality of Norway spruce under climate change (for probabilities higher than 0.25–0.31). If information about the impacts of climate change is expected to increase over time, and given the large sunk costs attached to conversion, a delay strategy may be preferable to transition and to status quo when the impacts of climate change on Norway spruce mortality are sufficiently ambiguous. In such cases, getting information earlier increases the LEV by €5–60/ha.Conclusion
Beyond the specifics of the case study, this paper suggests that quasi-option value is a relevant tool to provide insights to forest owners dealing with adaptation decisions in the context of climate change. 相似文献15.
Key message
Wood-anatomical traits determining the hydraulic architecture of Larix sibirica in the drought-limited Mongolian forest steppe at the southern fringe of the boreal forest respond to summer drought, but only weakly to variations in microclimate that depend on forest stand size.Context
Siberian larch (L. sibirica Ledeb.) is limited by summer drought and shows increasing mortality rates in the Mongolian forest steppe. The climate sensitivity of stemwood formation increases with decreasing forest stand size. The trees’ hydraulic architecture is crucial for drought resistance and thus the capability to deal with climate warming.Aims
We studied whether hydraulic traits were influenced by temporal or forest size-dependent variations in water availability and were related to tree-ring width.Methods
Hydraulic traits (tracheid diameter, tracheid density, potential sapwood area-specific hydraulic conductivity) of earlywood were studied in stemwood series of 30 years (1985–2014) and were related to climate data. Tree-ring width was measured for the same period. Trees were selected in stands of four different size classes with increasing drought exposure with decreasing stand size.Results
Tracheid diameters and hydraulic conductivity decreased with decreasing late summer precipitation of the previous year and were positively correlated with tree-ring width. Forest stand size had only weak effects on hydraulic traits, despite known effects on stemwood increment.Conclusion
Decreasing tracheid diameters and thus hydraulic conductivity are a drought acclimation of L. sibirica in the Mongolian forest steppe. These acclimations occur as a response to drought periods but are little site-dependent with respect to stand size.16.
Roberto Pilli Stephen J. Kull Viorel N. B. Blujdea Giacomo Grassi 《Annals of Forest Science》2018,75(3):71
Key message
The purpose of this report is to increase the transparency of applications of the CBM-CFS3 model by climate-related policy-makers and researchers. The report provides explicit information on the parametrization of a new Archive Index Database used with this model to simulate forest carbon dynamics in 26 EU countries. The database can be accessed at https://data.europa.eu/89h/jrc-cbm-eu-aidb , primary metadata are available in Kull et al. (2017), and additional metadata are available at https://metadata-afs.nancy.inra.fr/geonetwork/srv/fre/catalog.search#/metadata/df48155b-973f-4169-a722-100bb6bfc76c .The Carbon Budget Model of the Canadian Forest Sector (CBM-CFS3) has been adapted, tested, and applied to forests of 26 EU countries over the last 7 years for EU policy making and scientific research. The overall purpose of this exercise is to increase the transparency of how the EU Archive Index Database (EU-AIDB) was parameterized while supporting both the policy making and research communities interested in applying the CBM-CFS3 with ecological parameters specific to the EU context. In addition to preparing model input data reflecting various management and disturbance scenarios for CBM-CFS3 projects, an essential step was to update the original AIDB with information specific to the EU context and create an EU-AIDB. The AIDB is the Microsoft Access database behind the CBM-CFS3 that stores default ecological information and parameters pertaining to the forest ecosystems of a country, among other functions. The EU-AIDB incorporates 1034 spatial units resulting from the intersection of 204 European administrative regions and ecological boundaries representing 35 climatic units. It also contains updated parameters for 192 of the main tree species reported by the National Forest Inventories of each EU country. The release of this database allows CBM-33 CFS3 users in the EU to apply European administrative and ecological units and tree species in forest carbon modeling projects.17.
Carbon stock changes of forest land in Finland under different levels of wood use and climate change
Risto Sievänen Olli Salminen Aleksi Lehtonen Paavo Ojanen Jari Liski Kimmo Ruosteenoja Mikko Tuomi 《Annals of Forest Science》2014,71(2):255-265
Context
Prediction of the effect of harvests and climate change (CC) on the changes in carbon stock of forests is necessary both for CC mitigation and adaptation purposes.Aims
We assessed the impact of roundwood and fuelwood removals and climate change (CC) on the changes in carbon stock of Finnish forests during 2007–2042. We considered three harvest scenarios: two based on the recent projections of roundwood and fuelwood demand, and the third reflecting the maximum sustainable cutting level. We applied two climate scenarios: the climate was in the state that prevailed around year 2006, or it changed according to the IPCC SRES A1B scenario.Methods
We combined the large-scale forestry model MELA with the soil carbon model Yasso07 for mineral soils. For soils of drained, forested peatlands, we used a method based on emission factors.Results
The stock change of trees accounted for approximately 80 % of the total stock change. Trees and mineral soils acted as carbon sinks and the drained peatland soils as a carbon source. The forest carbon sink increased clearly in both of the demand-based scenarios, reaching the level of 13–20 Tg C/year (without CC). The planned increase in the use of bioenergy reduced the forest sink by 2.6 Tg C/year. CC increased the forest carbon sink in 2042 by 38 %–58 % depending on the scenario. CC decreased the sink of mineral soils in the initial years of the simulations; after 2030, the effect was slightly positive. CC increased the emissions from the drained peatland soils.Conclusions
It is likely that forest land in Finland acts as a carbon sink in the future. The changes in carbon stocks of trees, mineral soils, and peatland soils respond differently to CC and fuelwood and roundwood harvests. 相似文献18.
Rafał Podlaski 《Annals of Forest Science》2018,75(4):99
Key message
From 1973 to 1991, Polish SO 2 emissions above 3250 Gg/year resulted in a decline of fir Abies alba Mill. After stresses connected with these emissions, five main diameter at breast height (DBH) structural types were described. This type of heterogeneous forest structure is supposed to increase forest resistance and resilience to abiotic, biotic and anthropogenic disturbances.Context
The analyses of forest structure are important under the current scenario of global change, since heterogeneous structures allow for better responses to disturbances. Forests with more complex structures should present greater vitality.Aims
The main hypotheses were as follows: (1) the temporal changes of atmospheric SO2 emissions caused (a) the abrupt changes in the tree DBH radial increment and (b) the death of fir trees; and (2) atmospheric SO2 emissions and related fir decline and recovery processes ultimately result in the development of stands characterised by diverse DBH structures.Methods
Radial growth trends of 49 and 215 fir trees in the older and younger generations, respectively, and 85 dead fir trees were evaluated. Using data collected in 32 stands, the DBH structural types were identified, and the shapes of these types were illustrated.Results
The structural diversification of forest patches may influence forest resistance and resilience to disturbances; five main structural types were identified: ML1 and ML2 represent DBH distributions of multi-layered stands, and OS, TS1 and TS2 represent DBH distributions of one- and two-storied stands.Conclusion
Structural diversity of forests was a response to SO2 emissions; fir trees had the ability to increase their radial growth, although there were still high SO2 emissions.19.
Marie Charru Ingrid Seynave Jean-Christophe Hervé Romain Bertrand Jean-Daniel Bontemps 《Annals of Forest Science》2017,74(2):33