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1.
Chile has more than half of the temperate forests in the southern hemisphere. These have been included among the most threatened eco-regions in the world, because of the high degree of endemism and presence of monotypic genera. In this study, we develop empirical models to investigate present and future spatial patterns of woody species richness in temperate forests in south-central Chile. Our aims are both to increase understanding of species richness patterns in such forests and to develop recommendations for forest conservation strategies. Our data were obtained at multiple spatial scales, including field sampling, climate, elevation and topography data, and land-cover and spectrally derived variables from satellite sensor imagery. Climatic and land-cover variables most effectively accounted for tree species richness variability, while only weak relationships were found between explanatory variables and shrub species richness. The best models were used to obtain prediction maps of tree species richness for 2050, using data from the Hadley Centre’s HadCM3 model. Current protected areas are located far from the areas of highest tree conservation value and our models suggest this trend will continue. We therefore suggest that current conservation strategies are insufficient, a trend likely to be repeated across many other areas. We propose the current network of protected areas should be increased, prioritizing sites of both current and future importance to increase the effectiveness of the national protected areas system. In this way, target sites for conservation can also be chosen to bring other benefits, such as improved water supply to populated areas.  相似文献   

2.
Though Neotropical countries are the most species rich in the world, their biodiversity is threatened by the loss of native vegetation. Land conversion in Mexico during the last 30 years has been extensive and is representative of that of other developing countries. However, the effects of land use change on the required size and configuration of an adequate biological conservation area network are largely unknown. It is shown here that endemic mammals in Mexico could have been protected considerably more economically if a conservation plan had been implemented in 1970 than is possible today due to extensive conversion of primary habitats. Analysis of the distributions of 86 endemic mammal species in 1970, 1976, 1993, and 2000 indicates that the distributions of 90% of the species shrank during this 30-year period. At each time step, optimal conservation area networks were selected to represent all species. 90% more land must be protected after 2000 to protect adequate mammal habitat than would have been required in 1970. In addition, under a realistic conservation budget, 79% fewer species can be represented adequately in a conservation area network after 2000 compared to 1970. This provides an incentive for rapid conservation action in Mexico and other biodiversity hotspots with comparable deforestation rates, including Burma, Ecuador, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Sri Lanka. Due to ongoing habitat degradation, the efficiency of a conservation plan decreases with delays in its implementation.  相似文献   

3.
Reserves are frequently constrained in design and size by various financial, social or political factors. Maintenance of existing reserves must therefore rely on strategic management practices, and prioritization of conservation activities within them. Identification of global and regional hotspots have been effective for prioritizing conservation activities. Yet, identification of micro-hotspots, or overlapping areas of endemic and rare species that are under threat at the landscape scale, have largely been ignored. From a reserve management point of view, knowledge of critical micro-hotspots within a reserve, are focal points for directing cost effective, conservation initiatives, especially removal of invasive alien plants which are a major threat to biodiversity.Using diversity patterns of dragonfly assemblages, many endemic and threatened, within a biosphere reserve located in the core of a global biodiversity hotspot, we investigated the concept of micro-hotspots. As biosphere reserves contain zones with varying degrees of anthropogenic impact, we also investigated the value of buffer and transition zones for complementing the dragonfly fauna of the reserve core. We found a distinct micro-hotspot within the protected core zone which shows concordance for both endemism and species richness. We conclude that focused conservation actions to remove invasive alien plants within this micro-hotspot would help insure its continued integrity. Furthermore, while there is greater habitat degradation within the buffer and transition zones, they support many additional species, but not those necessarily endemic or threatened. The complementary value of buffer and transition zones therefore lies in increasing habitat heterogeneity and species richness of the whole reserve.  相似文献   

4.
In the past decade, there has been growing concern about the rapid degradation of marine ecosystems due to anthropogenic causes. Consequently, identifying priority areas for the conservation of marine biodiversity has become a crucial conservation issue. Taking into account the influence of human population density, we performed complementarity analyses to identify priority areas for the conservation of all coastal marine vertebrate species in Chile (265 species), and evaluated congruence among the different target groups. The distribution ranges of all species were digitized in a geographic information system and analyses were performed on latitudinal bands of 0.5°. Our results show that 12 latitudinal bands (∼16% of all latitudinal bands) are necessary to conserve at least one population of each species. Ten of these bands are irreplaceable, whereas two are flexible. Many of the irreplaceable sites lie within areas that have high human population density. In order to conserve all threatened and endemic species, six and three latitudinal bands are needed, respectively. Four latitudinal bands are needed to represent all species of fish, reptiles, and mammals, whereas nine bands are needed to protect all bird species. Taking flexible sites into account, reserve networks that meet the minimum representation goal for each taxonomic group, and for threatened and endemic species, represent subsets of the 12 latitudinal band network selected for all species. Spatial congruence among reserve networks selected for each target group was relatively low and only significantly higher than random in 9 out of 21 pairwise comparisons. However, with the exception of reptiles, conservation areas selected for different surrogate groups represented other groups relatively well, compared to randomly selected sites.  相似文献   

5.
Although data quality and weighting decisions impact the outputs of reserve selection algorithms, these factors have not been closely studied. We examine these methodological issues in the use of reserve selection algorithms by comparing: (1) quality of input data and (2) use of different weighting methods for prioritizing among species. In 2003, the government of Madagascar, a global biodiversity hotspot, committed to tripling the size of its protected area network to protect 10% of the country’s total land area. We apply the Zonation reserve selection algorithm to distribution data for 52 lemur species to identify priority areas for the expansion of Madagascar’s reserve network. We assess the similarity of the areas selected, as well as the proportions of lemur ranges protected in the resulting areas when different forms of input data were used: extent of occurrence versus refined extent of occurrence. Low overlap between the areas selected suggests that refined extent of occurrence data are highly desirable, and to best protect lemur species, we recommend refining extent of occurrence ranges using habitat and altitude limitations. Reserve areas were also selected for protection based on three different species weighting schemes, resulting in marked variation in proportional representation of species among the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species extinction risk categories. This result demonstrates that assignment of species weights influences whether a reserve network prioritizes maximizing overall species protection or maximizing protection of the most threatened species.  相似文献   

6.
Madagascar is a global biodiversity hotspot threatened by forest loss, degradation and fragmentation, all of which are detrimental to the future survival of forest-dwelling organisms. For conservation purposes it is essential to determine how species respond to habitat disturbance, specifically deforestation. In this study we investigated the impacts of deforestation on three vertebrate communities, lizards, small mammals and birds, in an area of spiny forest subjected to anthropogenic forest clearance. Spiny forest has high levels of endemism, but conservation in this unique ecosystem is hindered by the lack of research. We undertook standardised trapping, time-constrained and timed species searches to assess species richness, species abundance and community composition of lizards, small mammals and birds in six areas of ‘forest’ and six ‘cleared’ areas. From surveys and opportunistic sightings we recorded a total of 70 species of birds, 14 species of mammals and 38 species of reptiles and amphibians. We found forest clearing to have a negative effect on species richness and community structure of all groups and identified loss of canopy cover as a driving factor behind this. However, the response and sensitivity to clearing varied between groups and species. Lizards (50%) and small mammals (40%) had the greatest decline in species richness in response to clearing as compared to birds (26%), although birds showed the greatest shift in community structure. The community in cleared areas contained more generalist and introduced species that have wider geographic ranges and habitat preferences, than those unique to the spiny forest. We found the first suite of species to suffer from forest clearance were those of high conservation priority due to their restricted geographic range. Our findings are discussed in relation to future spiny forest conservation and management.  相似文献   

7.
The Baja California Peninsula is home to 85 species of cacti, of which 54 are endemic, highlighting its importance as a cactus diverse region within Mexico. Many species are under threat due to collection pressure and habitat loss, but ensuring maximal protection of cacti species requires a better understanding of diversity patterns. We assessed species richness, endemism, and phylogenetic and morphological diversity using herbarium records and a molecular phylogeny for 82 species of cacti found in the peninsula. The four diversity measures were estimated for the existing nature reserve network and for 314 hexagrids of 726 km2. Using the hexagrid data, we surveyed our results for areas that best complement the current protected cacti diversity in the Baja California Peninsula. Currently, the natural reserve network in Baja shelters an important amount of the cacti diversity (74% of the species, 85.9% of the phylogenetic diversity, 76% of endemics and all the growth forms). While species richness produced several solutions to complement the diversity protected, by identifying priority species (endemic species with high contribution to overall PD) one best solution is reported. Three areas (San Matías, Magdalena and Margarita Islands and El Triunfo), selected using species richness, PD and endemism, best complement the diversity currently protected, increasing species richness to 89%, PD to 94% and endemism to 89%, and should be considered in future conservation plans. Two of these areas could be included within nature reserves already established.  相似文献   

8.
Biodiversity in Africa, Madagascar and smaller surrounding islands is both globally extraordinary and increasingly threatened. However, to date no analyses have effectively integrated species values (e.g., richness, endemism) ‘non-species’ values (e.g., migrations, intact assemblages), and threats into a single assessment of conservation priorities. We present such an analysis for the 119 ecoregions of Africa, Madagascar and smaller islands. Biodiversity is not evenly distributed across Africa and patterns vary somewhat among taxonomic groups. Analyses of most vertebrates (i.e., birds, mammals, amphibians) tend to identify one set of priority ecoregions, while plants, reptiles, and invertebrates highlight additional areas. ‘Non-species’ biological values are not correlated with species measures and thus indicate another set of ecoregions. Combining species and non-species values is therefore crucial for assembling a comprehensive portfolio of conservation priorities across Africa. Threats to biodiversity are also unevenly distributed across Africa. We calculate a synthetic threat index using remaining habitat, habitat block size, degree of habitat fragmentation, coverage within protected areas, human population density, and the extinction risk of species. This threat index is positively correlated with all three measures of biological value (i.e., richness, endemism, non-species values), indicating that threats tend to be focused on the region’s most important areas for biodiversity. Integrating biological values with threats allows identification of two distinct sets of ecoregion priority. First, highly imperilled ecoregions with many narrow endemic species that require focused actions to prevent the loss of further habitat leading to the extinction of narrowly distributed endemics. Second, less threatened ecoregions that require maintenance of large and well-connected habitats that will support large-scale habitat processes and associated area-demanding species. By bringing these data together we can be much more confident that our set of conservation recommendations serves the needs of biodiversity across Africa, and that the contribution of different agencies to achieving African conservation can be firmly measured against these priorities.  相似文献   

9.
The interdigitation of the Nearartic and Neotropical biogeographic zones in the Transvolcanic Belt (TVB) of central Mexico provides the region with high faunal richness and endemicity. Biodiversity conservation in the TVB must accommodate the region’s human population of more than 40 million. The current study presents conservation plans for the TVB intended to protect 99 non-volant mammal species while minimizing the impact on the human population. A rarity-complementarity algorithm was used to select a conservation area network (CAN) from sites with untransformed vegetation to represent 10% of each species’ habitat. In addition, a new method was developed for augmenting the connectivity of CANs using graph theory. External sites were assigned quality scores based on the frequency with which they were selected at different targets of representation for species. Graph algorithms identified the highest-quality sites needed to link all conservation areas in an economical manner. These connectivity areas can facilitate migration or egress of biota in the event of local environmental stress. The network initialized with existing protected areas occupied 9.13% of the TVB, whereas the network built from scratch occupied 6.02%. In both cases, an additional area of only about 1.5% of the region was required to link all conservation areas in the network. Finally, a multiple criterion synchronization technique was used to select those connected networks which minimized both total area and human population impact.  相似文献   

10.
Large flying-foxes in insular Southeast Asia are the most threatened of the Old World fruit bats due to high levels of deforestation and hunting and effectively little local conservation commitment. The forest at Subic Bay, Philippines, supports a rare, large colony of vulnerable Philippine giant fruit bats (Pteropus vampyrus lanensis) and endangered and endemic golden-crowned flying-foxes (Acerodon jubatus). These large flying-foxes are optimal for conservation focus, because in addition to being keystone, flagship, and umbrella species, the bats are important to Subic Bay’s economy and its indigenous cultures. Habitat selection information streamlines management’s efforts to protect and conserve these popular but threatened animals. We used radio telemetry to describe the bats’ nighttime use of habitat on two ecological scales: vegetation and microhabitat. The fruit bats used the entire 14,000 ha study area, including all of Subic Bay Watershed Reserve, as well as neighboring forests just outside the protected area boundaries. Their recorded foraging locations ranged between 0.4 and 12 km from the roost. We compared the bats’ use to the availability of vegetative habitat types, riparian areas, and bat trees. The fruit bats’ locations showed a preference for undisturbed forest types and selection against disturbed and agricultural areas. Bat locations also showed selection for particular fruiting/flowering bat trees. The bats showed strong preference for riparian areas; locations were in riparian areas over four times more than expected. From these results we recommend that management focus flying-fox conservation efforts on undisturbed forest and riparian areas.  相似文献   

11.
Traditionally, nature reserves have been centered mainly around areas that are important for vertebrate diversity. This practice has not gone unchallenged and may be a suboptimal choice for overall conservation planning. To investigate this problem, we sampled butterfly species richness in a nature reserve in north eastern Greece that was originally established for the protection of birds of prey. Patterns of butterfly species richness and abundance were investigated by means of transect walks across a range of the seven predominant habitat types (wet and dry meadow, pine, oak and mixed forest, grazed, and agricultural land). Data analysis, including ANOVA and DCA (detrended correspondence analysis), revealed that the main gradients in butterfly species richness (low to high) were from sites dominated by the pine forest matrix of the core areas of the reserve, to peripheral sites in landscapes of mixed or oak forest, and from sites with little human impact to more disturbed areas with high grazing pressure. Species of conservation interest were concentrated at sites of low human impact. Ten of them are endemic to Europe and/or threatened in Europe. In this respect, the most important species are Lycaena ottomanus, Thymelicus acteon, and Pseudophilotes vicrama which are declining all over Europe. Our results suggest that (1) traditional agricultural practices in areas surrounded by forest can be considered as important management tools in butterfly conservation, (2) highest butterfly species richness is found in the periphery of the reserve rather than in the core areas, and (3) for butterfly conservation the zones surrounding the strictly protected areas are equally important as the core areas.  相似文献   

12.
Remote sensing is increasingly used by policy-makers and conservationists to identify conservation priorities and changes in land cover. This is particularly important in the biodiverse tropics, where there are often few field data. Conservation action is often directed towards areas containing globally threatened species, but there have been few attempts to improve assessments of species’ extinction risk through remote sensing. Here, in a novel approach we use deforestation estimates, measured through satellite imagery, to assess the conservation status of an entire endemic avifauna, based on IUCN Red List criteria. The island of New Britain, east of New Guinea, is of very high global conservation importance, and home to 37 endemic or restricted-range bird species. Analysis suggests 12% of forest cover was lost between 1989 and 2000, including over 20% of forest under 100 m altitude, with substantial areas cleared for commercial oil palm plantations. Application of the IUCN Red List criteria to these new data on area of remaining forest and rates of deforestation indicates that many species are more threatened than previously realised, with the total number of threatened or near threatened species increasing from 12 to 21. Thus, this study highlights the urgency of establishing and effectively managing protected areas in suitable lowland forests of New Britain. More broadly, it demonstrates another potential of remote sensing to assist strategic conservation decisions.  相似文献   

13.
This article documents the conservation status of the herpetofauna in the Pacific lowlands and adjacent Balsas Basin and Chiapas Depression regions and the presents the results of modelling species spatial distributional patterns through GARP analysis, to identify hotspots of species richness, endemic and geographically restricted species in the study area. It also compares the distribution of these hotspots with the distribution of protected areas and intact seasonally tropical dry tropical forests, the dominant vegetation type in the study area and experiencing high deforestation rates. A total of 301 reptiles and amphibian species occur in the study area accounting for a third of the Mexican herpetofauna, and recording high levels of endemism and endangerment. Hotspots of species richness and endemism were located in coastal Jalisco, a considerable portion of the Colima state, as well as scattered areas in Michoacán, Guerrero, and Oaxaca. These areas should receive highest priority for protection. Unfortunately, there was a minimum correspondence when comparing the distribution of actually and proposed protected areas with hotspots identified. Fortunately, areas of high species richness, endemism and restricted species coincided with those where intact seasonally tropical dry tropical forests still exists. These areas should receive high priority in future plans for seasonally tropical dry tropical forests protected areas. It is hoped that this paper will call attention to the need for establishing a network of protected areas in the study area, as has been proposed by previous studies.  相似文献   

14.
To be effective, reserve networks should represent all target species in protected areas that are large enough to ensure species persistence. Given limited resources to set aside protected areas for biodiversity conservation, and competing land uses, a prime consideration for the design of reserve networks is efficiency (the maximum biodiversity represented in a minimum number of sites). However, to be effective, networks may sacrifice efficiency. We used reserve selection algorithms to determine whether collections of existing individual protected areas in Canada were efficient and/or effective in terms of representing the diversity of disturbance-sensitive mammals in Canada in comparison to (1) an optimal network of reserves, and (2) sites selected at random. Unlike previous studies, we restricted our analysis to individual protected areas that met a criterion for minimum reserve size, to address issues of representation and persistence simultaneously. We also tested for effectiveness and efficiency using historical and present-day data to see whether protected area efficiency and/or effectiveness varied over time. In general, existing protected areas did not effectively capture the full suite of mammalian species diversity, nor are most existing protected areas part of a near-optimal solution set. To be effective, Canada’s network of reserves will require at minimum 22 additional areas of >2700 km2. This study shows that even when only those reserves large enough to be effective are considered, protected areas systems may not be representative, nor were they representative at the time of establishment.  相似文献   

15.
Despite the loss of 83% of native forests in the Philippines, little is known on the effects of this massive habitat loss and degradation on its forest biotas. This is a cause for concern because of the threat posed to the country’s large number of endemic taxa. To investigate the impacts of anthropogenic disturbance, forest birds and butterflies were surveyed in closed and open canopy forests, as well as suburban, rural and urban areas within the Subic Bay Watershed Reserve and Olongapo City in western Luzon. Measures of forest species richness and population densities for both taxa were similar in the two forest types, but showed different patterns in the other habitats. Indirect gradient analysis showed that forest bird species were positively correlated with vegetation variables (i.e., canopy cover, tree density, height to inversion and ground cover), while forest butterflies were not strongly correlated to any of the measured habitat variables. Community composition of birds in forests was distinct from those in modified habitats, while butterfly communities were more similar. A simulation showed that canopy cover of 60% or higher was required by 24 of the 26 bird species that were sensitive to canopy loss. Endemicity and nesting strata were the significant predictors of vulnerability to habitat disturbance for birds, while endemicity and larval hostplant specificity were significant for butterflies. Both taxa were negatively affected by anthropogenic disturbance but may respond to different components in the habitat (i.e., structure and resources), and thus cannot be used as surrogates of each other. Conservation of forests with contiguous canopy cover should be prioritized, and more ecological research is needed to improve the knowledge on the effects of disturbance on Philippine biodiversity.  相似文献   

16.
Landscape-scale studies facilitate species diversity analysis according to environmental heterogeneity and human activity. This study was aimed at using local knowledge as a tool for testing predictive models’ validity for assessing the spatial distribution of medium-sized mammalian richness, identifying local patterns of species richness and evaluating local protected areas’ role in the conservation of mammals. Distribution maps were generated for historically recorded species using genetic algorithm for rule-set prediction (GARP). The landscape was reclassified as habitat, hospitable matrix and inhospitable matrix in the second scenario and a third scenario was generated limiting species distribution by using the home range. The local richness predicted by all scenarios varied from 1 to 32 species per cell while gamma diversity was 34. The 72 structured interviews led to recording 3–17 species (a total of 27). There have been no reports of nine wild species over the last 2 years. Currently protected areas cannot support viable populations of the species so recorded so shade coffee plantations must adopt conservation strategies. Historical inventories overestimate expected richness; however, combining GARP-generated models with the information obtained from local inhabitants and experts allows rapid regional evaluation of medium-sized mammalian richness and the identification of extinct species, declining populations and abundant species.  相似文献   

17.
Conservation actions frequently need to be scheduled because both funding and implementation capacity are limited. Two approaches to scheduling are possible. Maximizing gain (MaxGain) which attempts to maximize representation with protected areas, or minimizing loss (MinLoss) which attempts to minimize total loss both inside and outside protected areas. Conservation planners also choose between setting priorities based solely on biodiversity pattern and considering surrogates for biodiversity processes such as connectivity. We address both biodiversity processes and habitat loss in a scheduling framework by comparing four different prioritization strategies defined by MaxGain and MinLoss applied to biodiversity patterns and processes to solve the dynamic area selection problem with variable area cost. We compared each strategy by estimating predicted species’ occurrences within a landscape after 20 years of incremental reservation and loss of habitat. By incorporating species-specific responses to fragmentation, we found that you could improve the performance of conservation strategies. MinLoss was the best approach for conserving both biodiversity pattern and process. However, due to the spatial autocorrelation of habitat loss, reserves selected with this approach tended to become more isolated through time; losing up to 40% of occurrences of edge-sensitive species. Additionally, because of the positive correlation between threats and land cost, reserve networks designed with this approach contained smaller and fewer reserves compared with networks designed with a MaxGain approach. We suggest a possible way to account for the negative effect of fragmentation by considering both local and neighbourhood vulnerability to habitat loss.  相似文献   

18.
Habitat mapping at the scale at which marine protected areas are designed and managed is essential for assessment of, and design for, representation. Most habitat mapping studies rely solely or in part on abiotic surrogates for patterns of biodiversity. The utility of abiotic variables in predicting biological distributions at the local scale (10 s of km) was tested in a remote video survey of macrobenthos in Moreton Bay, Australia. Habitat classifications of the same set of 41 sites based on 6 abiotic variables and abundances of 89 taxa and bioturbation indicators were compared using correlation, regression and ordination analyses. The concepts of false homogeneity (abiotically similar but biologically distinct) and false heterogeneity (abiotically distinct but biologically similar) were defined to describe types of errors associated with using abiotic surrogates to construct habitat maps, and quantified using two separate methods. Overall, the best prediction by abiotic surrogates explained less than 30% of the pattern of biological similarity. Errors of false homogeneity were between 20% and 62%, depending on the methods of estimation. Predictive capability of abiotic surrogates at the taxon level was poor, with only 6% of taxon/surrogate correlations significant. Abiotic variables did not discriminate sufficiently between different soft bottom communities to be a reliable basis for mapping. These results have implications for the widespread use of abiotic surrogates in marine habitat mapping to plan for, or assess, representation in marine protected areas. Little confidence can be placed in marine habitat classifications based solely or largely on abiotic surrogates without calibration by rigorous biological surveys at the appropriate scale. Therefore, it is questionable whether marine protected areas designed on this basis can have measurable benefits for conservation.  相似文献   

19.
Bird species’ community responses to land use in the suburbanizing Twin Cities, Minnesota, USA, were contrasted among reserves, rural lands, and suburbs. For each land use type, bird composition, diversity, and abundance were recorded for 2 years in ≈99 plots in three sampling units (each ≈4500 ha). A habitat gradient defined by canopy structure (grasslands to savannas to forests) was influenced by land use, so ≈300 plots were used to characterize simultaneous variation in bird communities along land use and habitat gradients. At broad scales (aggregate of 33 plots covering ≈4500 ha) suburbs supported the lowest bird richness and diversity and rural landscapes the most, with reserves slightly below rural. Although reserves were like rural lands in diversity of bird communities, they supported more species of conservation concern, particularly of grasslands and savannas. Differences among land use types varied with habitat structure. Suburbs, rural lands, and reserves had similar forest bird communities, but differed in grassland and savanna bird communities. The extensive rural forests are important for the region’s forest birds. Suburban grasslands and savannas had low shrub abundance, low native bird richness and high non-native bird richness and abundance. However, total bird richness and diversity were as high in suburban as in rural and reserve plots because high native richness in suburban forests and high non-native species richness in suburban grasslands and savannas compensated for lower native richness in suburban grasslands and savannas. Bird conservation here and in the Midwest USA should protect rural forests, expand grasslands and savannas in reserves, and improve habitat quality overall.  相似文献   

20.
One of the most serious environmental problems is the current acceleration in the rate of species extinction associated with human activities, which is occurring particularly rapidly in freshwaters. Here we examine whether endemic water beetles are effectively protected by existing conservation measures in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands, a region of high diversity and intense human pressure. We used an exhaustive database for aquatic beetles in the region to address such issues. Firstly, we identify the most threatened endemic taxa using a categorization system to rank species according to their conservation priority or vulnerability. Of the 120 endemic species of water beetles used in the analysis, only two (Ochthebius ferroi and Ochthebius javieri) were identified as being extremely vulnerable, 71 were highly vulnerable and 46 moderately vulnerable, with only a single species identified as having low vulnerability status. Since no Iberian species of aquatic Coleoptera has legal protection, the only conservation measure available for these species is the extent to which they occur in protected areas. Here we identify distributional hotspots for threatened endemic species, and evaluate the extent to which these are already included in the Natura 2000 network in Spain and Portugal. Despite a high degree of concordance between hotspots and Natura 2000 sites, the distribution of four species falls completely outside the network. The analysis also reveals that Natura 2000 fails to protect saline water bodies, despite their high conservation interest and narrow global distribution. The picture revealed here with water beetles is likely to be similar for others groups of freshwater macroinvertebrates, since Coleoptera are known to be good surrogates of aquatic biodiversity in the region. Finally, the degree of protection provided via Natura 2000, and the utility of red lists are discussed.  相似文献   

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