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1.
This experiment was aimed to study the effect of quinestrol on the expression of PCNA and Caspase-3 in spermatogenic cells of juvenile mice. 4-week old male mice were randomly divided into four groups. Mice in the control group were injected intraperitoneally with olive oil alone and mice in the experiment groups were injected intraperitoneally with octylphenol resolved in olive oil at 1, 10, 100 mg/kg doses respectively for 1 week (once a day). The testes were immediately removed for weighing and serial cross-sections that were used for histological examination when the mice were 8-week-old. The expressions of PCNA and Caspase-3 in spermatogenic cells were determined by immunohistochemical method. The results showed that the thickness of the convoluted seminiferous tubule decreased, cellular deranged, cell layers decreased and intercellular space increased. Meanwhile, there were a large number of abnormal shedding of spermatocytes and round spermatids, but few elongated spermatids and spermatozoa. The expression of PCNA extremely significantly decreased and the expression of Caspase-3 extremely significantly increased as quinestrol dose increased (P＜0.01). Quinestrol caused male reproductive function injury through inhibiting proliferation and promoting apoptosis in spermatogenic cells by regulating the expression of associated proteins.  相似文献   

2.
Fertility control is an alternative strategy to traditional culling for the management of rodent pests. Previous studies have demonstrated that quinestrol is a potential contraceptive for male rodents, but the recovery of fertility in quinestrol‐treated rodents has not been evaluated. This study used C57BL/6J mice to evaluate the recovery rate of male fertility after the administration of quinestrol. Diethylstilbestrol (DES), a non‐steroid estrogenic compound, was used for comparison. Different groups of mice were treated with 1 mg/kg quinestrol, 1 mg/kg DES, or castor oil separately for 7 days. These mice were then killed on days 8, 22 and 50 respectively. Our results indicated that the weight of epididymides and seminal vesicles decreased significantly on days 8 and 22 in quinestrol/DES‐treated mice, with extensive histological changes in the seminiferous tubules. Sperm concentrations in the cauda epididymal fluid were significantly reduced on days 8 and 22 in both quinestrol and DES treatment groups and on day 50 for the DES, but not the quinestrol group. Further analysis revealed that DES‐treated mice exhibited a higher proportion of abnormal sperm accumulation in the epididymis, indicating that the normal sperm transportation to the cauda epididymis was blocked. Our results indicate that the anti‐fertility effects on male mice given quinestrol were of shorter duration than for those receiving DES at the dose of 1 mg/kg body weight.  相似文献   

3.
Mature and healthy male house rats, Rattus rattus (n= 160) were fed on bait (cracked wheat: powdered sugar, 98:2) containing different concentrations of triptolide (0.1, 0.05, 0.025 and 0%) for 7 and 14 days in no‐choice and bi‐choice feeding tests in the laboratory. The objective of the study was to record the antifertility affects of triptolide after 30 and 60 days of termination of treatment. Results revealed no significant effect of triptolide treatment on weights of testis, epididymis, seminal vesicles and prostate gland of rats. Overall, sperm motility, live sperm count, sperm density and sperm morphology in the cauda epididymal fluid were found to differ significantly (P≤ 0.05) between untreated and treated groups of rats. The major effect of triptolide on sperm morphology was in the form of sperm head tail separation, which was up to 56.0% in rats treated for 14 days in no‐choice and autopsied after 30 days. A significant effect (P≤ 0.05) of triptolide treatment was observed on the histomorphology of the testis, which included a dose‐dependent decrease in diameter of seminiferous tubules, thickness of germinal epithelium and numbers of various spermatogenic cells. Cell associations in the seminiferous epithelial cycle were poorly developed in rats ingesting medium (4.7–5.1 mg/100 g bw) and high doses (6.9–7.2 mg/100 g bw) of triptolide than rats ingesting low doses (1.8–2.3 mg/100 g bw) and untreated rats. The cell stages affected had not recovered fully within the 60 day period following triptolide withdrawal. The present study suggests the potential of triptolide in reproductive management of Rattus rattus.  相似文献   

4.
The aim of the study was to evaluate the use of laparoscopy for the assessment of the reproductive tract and stage of gonadal development of the tench (Tinca tinca). Laparoscopy was carried out from February to March 2009, on 30 anesthetized tenchs, 15 males and 15 females, of approximately 250 g bodyweight and 30 cm length, using a 1.9‐mm rigid cystoscope. Male and female gonads, attached to the swim bladder, were visualized. Testes were orange with a striped appearance. Mature ovaries were cluster‐shaped and whitish. Histological samples were collected, from the reproductive organs of both the sexes, with a forceps and showed the presence of gametes at different stages of maturity. The application of this minimally invasive diagnostic imaging technique could clinically be used as a powerful tool to evaluate the gender and to establish the reproductive status of tench and other fish.  相似文献   

5.
The effects of feeding autoclaved commercial SSNIFF (SN) diet and diets containing soya bean (S) and casein (C) to growing conventional (CON) and specified pathogen‐free (SPF) rats were determined. Diets S, C and SN, autoclaved at 121 °C during 20 min (T1), at 134 °C during 10 min (T2) and non‐autoclaved (T0), were fed during four weeks, each to 8 CON males and 8 females of mean initial body weight 56 g, kept individually. Diets S, C and SN, autoclaved at T1, were fed during two months, each to 20 SPF males and 20 females of mean initial body weight 58 g, kept in group of 5 animals per cage. In CON rats, autoclaving did not affect feed intake and weight gain, decreased thyroid and stomach weight, increased caecal tissue and digesta weight, and concentrations of isobutyric, isovaleric and valeric acid in caecal digesta. Among biochemical blood parameters, autoclaving decreased only total protein concentration and aspartate aminotransferase activity. Feeding C diet resulted in lower feed intake and weight gain in CON and SPF males. Diet affected organ weights and the greatest differences were found in rats on SN diet for weights of stomach, caecum and female reproductive organs. Diet affected concentration of all short‐chain fatty acids, pH and weight of caecal digesta, the most important being the greatest butyric acid concentration on SN diet and isoacids on C diet. It is concluded that autoclaving of both soya‐containing and soya‐free diets does not affect negatively animal performance and physiology.  相似文献   

6.
Data on reproductive activity of fossorial species are limited because the specimens are difficult to be observed and captured. Here in, we present the reproductive cycle of female Atractus pantostictus, a fossorial neotropical species, and the sexual maturity of males and females in south‐eastern Brazil. The female reproductive cycle of A. pantostictus is seasonal, with vitellogenic follicles being found from September to April and eggs in November, February, March and April with the number varying between two and four. Spermatozoa were found in the lumen of the glandular and non‐glandular uterus in females collected during the rainy season. Sperm storage tubules were found in the posterior infundibulum of the females, where the storage of sperm occurs for a short time. The storage may occur because mating and ovulation are dissociated.  相似文献   

7.
Inter‐group conflicts are common among many group‐living animals and involve potentially complex motivations and interactions. Mammals living in multilevel societies offer a good opportunity to study inter‐group conflicts. This study is the first to explore the function of sex‐specific participation during inter‐group conflicts within a multilevel society at the individual level. The Sichuan snub‐nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) is an endangered seasonal breeding species living in a multilevel society. From Sep 2007 to May 2008 we recorded 290 inter‐group conflicts of a free‐ranging provisioned band of R. roxellana in the Qinling Mountains of China to investigate the function of individual aggression during inter‐group encounters. Our findings show that adult males were the main participants in inter‐group conflicts, while females took part in them only occasionally. The male participation rate during the mating season, when adult females were estrous, was significantly higher than that during the non‐mating season. Furthermore, males directed their aggression to other males, and directed more intense aggression towards bachelor males than towards other resident males. For both sexes, the participation rate as initiators was higher in the winter than that in the spring; and there was a significant positive correlation between group size and the participation rate as initiators. Our results suggest that inter‐group aggression in Sichuan snub‐nosed monkeys is linked to both mate defense and resource defense.  相似文献   

8.
Most studies support the viewpoint that the vomeronasal organ has a profound effect on conspecific odor recognition, scent marking and mating behavior in the golden hamster (Mesocricetus auratus). However, the role of the vomeronasal organ in social odor recognition, social interaction and fitness is not well understood. Therefore, we conducted a series of behavioral and physiological tests to examine the referred points in golden hamster. We found that male hamsters with vomeronasal organ lesion showed no preference between a predator odor (the anal gland secretion of the Siberian weasels (Mustela sibirica) and putative female pheromone components (myristic acid and palmitic acid), but were still able to discriminate between these 2 kinds of odors. In behavioral tests of anxiety, we found that vomeronasal organ removal causes female hamsters to spend much less time in center grids and to cross fewer center grids and males to make fewer crossings between light and dark boxes than sham‐operated controls. This indicates that a chronic vomeronasal organ lesion induced anxious responses in females. In aggressive behavioral tests, we found that a chronic vomeronasal organ lesion decreased agonistic behavior in female hamsters but not in males. The pup growth and litter size show no differences between the 2 groups. All together, our data suggested that vomeronasal organ ablation disrupted the olfactory recognition of social chemosignals in males, and induced anxiety‐like and aggressive behavior changes in females. However, a vomeronasal organ lesion did not affect the reproductive capacity and fitness of hamsters. Our studies may have important implications concerning the role of the vomeronasal organ in golden hamsters and also in rodents.  相似文献   

9.
Prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster) are a socially monogamous rodent species and their cooperative behaviors require extensive communication between conspecifics. Rodents use ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) to communicate and because a prairie vole breeder pair must engage in extensive cooperation for successful reproduction, auditory communication may be critical for this species. Therefore, we sought to characterize USVs in adult male and female prairie voles, and to determine how these calls are influenced by social context, salient social stimuli and the psychostimulant drug of abuse amphetamine (AMPH). Here, we characterize prairie vole USVs by showing the range of frequencies of prairie vole USVs, the proportion of various call types, how these call types compare between males and females, and how they are influenced by social stimulation and AMPH. AMPH caused a robust increase in the number of USVs in both males and females and there was a dramatic sex difference in the complexity of call structures of AMPH‐induced USVs, with males emitting more elaborate calls. Moreover, we show that novel (i.e. salient) social cues evoked differential increases in USVs across sex, with males showing a much more robust increase in USV production, both with respect to the frequency and complexity of USV production. Exposure to an estrous female in particular caused an extraordinary increase in USVs in male subjects. These data suggest that USVs may be a useful measure of social motivation in this species, including how social behaviors can be impacted by drugs of abuse.  相似文献   

10.
Reproductive and life history patterns in reptiles are tightly related to the environmental conditions, so male reproductive cycles have been historically characterized as continuous, for tropical lizards, or seasonal, for temperate lizards. However, males of Liolaemus and Phymaturus lizards (Liolaemidae), from cold temperate climates of high altitudes or latitudes in Argentina and Chile, have developed a variety of reproductive cycles to coordinate with the short female reproductive season and to deal with the low frequency of reproductive females in the population. Using gonadal histology and morphological analysis, we describe the male reproductive biology, fat storage and sexual dimorphism of the viviparous lizards Liolaemus sarmientoi and Liolaemus magellanicus that inhabit an austral grass steppe at 51°S, in the southern limit of the American continent. Males of L. sarmientoi and L. magellanicus are reproductively available during the entire activity season of approximately 5 months. In addition, males of both species exhibit greater body sizes than females in morphological variables relevant in sexual selection. Meanwhile, females of both species exhibit larger inter‐limb length than conspecific males, which suggests fecundity selection to increase space for a larger litter size. The continuous sperm production throughout the activity season allows these liolaemids to mate at any time when females ovulate, representing a selective advantage to deal with the short activity season and the adversities of the cold environment they inhabit.  相似文献   

11.
Metabolic homeostasis is aligned with changes in growth and body composition, through processes mediated by circulating metabolites and metabolic hormones, and is eventually linked to reproductive success. In the present study with sheep, we determined the relationships among phenotypic and genotypic rates of growth, muscle and fat accumulation, and the circulating concentrations of metabolic and tested for relationships with the timing of puberty and subsequent reproductive outcomes. We used 64 females and 62 males with known phenotypic values for depth of eye muscle (EMD) and fat (FAT) and known Australian Sheep Breeding Values at post‐weaning age for live weight (PWT), depth of eye muscle (PEMD) and depth of fat (PFAT). Blood plasma sampled every 20 min for 8 hr via was assayed for growth hormone (GH), insulin‐like growth factor I (IGF‐I), insulin, leptin, ghrelin, follistatin, glucose and non‐esterified fatty acids (NEFA). In males, PWT was positively related to the concentrations of GH, follistatin and glucose, whereas FAT and PFAT were positively related to IGF‐I concentrations (p < .01). Testosterone concentration was negatively related to muscle variables (p < .001) and to PFAT (p < .05). In females, the only significant relationship detected was the positive link between EMD and insulin concentrations (p < .05). Reproductive variables were only measured in females. Live weight at first oestrus was related positively to insulin concentration and negatively to GH concentration (p < .05). No other relationships with reproductive variables were significant. The relationships that were detected suggest subtle differences between the sexes in the way their metabolic homeostasis responds to changes in the rates of growth, and muscle and fat accumulation, perhaps due to interference by testosterone in the males.  相似文献   

12.
Effect of long‐term selection for improved growth on reproductive performance of giant freshwater prawn (GFP) Macrobrachium rosenbergii has not been reported in the literature. The present study aimed to measure correlated responses in reproductive traits and to estimate genetic parameters for these characters in a GFP population selected for high growth over ten generations from 2007 to 2016. A total of 959 breeding females (offspring of 515 sires and 810 dams) had measurements for seven reproductive traits (weight before spawn WBS; weight after spawn WAS; Fecundity FEC or number of larvae per female at hatching; first age to reach post‐larvae PLAGE; zoea (e) weight ZOEAWT; larval survival during hatchery phase SURV1 and survival from PL to tagging SURV2. The restricted maximum likelihood (REML) and mixed model analysis were used to estimate genetic parameters and evaluate selection responses for the seven traits studied. Our REML analysis showed that heritability for these traits ranged from 0.04 to 0.42 (SE: 0.19–0.28). Female body weight either before or after spawning had strong positive phenotypic correlations with fecundity (0.52–0.98). By contrast, the phenotypic correlations of WBS/WAS with larval and fry survivals were not significant (?0.08–0.05). Genetic correlations among fecundity‐related traits studied were not different from zero due to their high standard errors. Correlated responses in reproductive traits were measured by comparing least squares means of the selection line and control group. Females of the selected line for high growth had significantly greater weight before or after spawning than that of the control group. There were, however, no statistical differences between the two lines in the other traits. It is concluded that selection for high growth did not have detrimental impact on reproductive performance of breeding females in the present population of GFP.  相似文献   

13.
Rodent pest population outbreaks occur frequently in grassland ecosystems in northern China. The Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus) is a dominant pest rodent which is distributed across the semi‐desert grasslands of Inner Mongolia, China. In 2009, we studied the contraceptive effect of levonorgestrel‐quinestrol (EP‐1), concentration 50 ppm, on a wild Mongolian gerbil population. The one‐off contraceptive treatment was compared with a control group using a semi‐monthly live trapping method in the Ordos Semi‐desert Grassland Region of Inner Mongolia. The results show that juveniles were not recruited in spring in the treatment group. Ratios of juveniles in the control and treatment groups showed significant semi‐monthly differences from spring to summer (one‐way ANOVA, F2, 14= 7.53, P < 0.05). Between both groups, annual fluctuations of juvenile and total population densities were significantly different respectively (F2, 14= 4.64, P < 0.05; F2, 18= 7.72, P < 0.05). The contraceptive EP‐1 delayed the normal reproductive pattern of Mongolian gerbil populations. This suppressed birth rates of gerbil populations, reduced their densities, and changed their age structures. The period of EP‐1 baiting should be extended but it could be an ideal method for controlling Mongolian gerbil populations during each breeding season.  相似文献   

14.
Oxytocin (OT) and protein kinase A (PKA), a possible intracellular mediator of hormone action in the ovary, can be potent activators of ovarian functions and fertility. Nevertheless, action of OT on ovarian follicle atresia has not been studied yet. Only single administration of PKA activators [3‐isobutyl‐1‐methyl‐xanthine (IBMX) and dibutyryl cyclic adenosine monophosphate (dbcAMP)] on ovarian follicle atresia was studied previously. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of OT (single treatment per one reproductive cycle, multiple treatments for three cycles), IBMX and dbcAMP (multiple treatments) on folliculogenesis and follicular atresia in rabbit. The ovarian cycle in control females was induced only by gonadotropins. Experimental females received co‐administration of gonadotropins with OT, IBMX or dbcAMP (at 50 μg/female). All females were artificially inseminated. Single‐treated females were euthanized after 18–19 h. Multiple‐treated females were euthanized after the third reproductive cycle. Histological sections of the ovaries were prepared and evaluated by a light microscopy. The follicles were divided into four classes according to the structure of granulosa and theca cells as follows: none or small atresia, cystic atresia, obliterative atresia and atresia associated with luteinization. The ovaries from the control and experimental females, treated during one reproductive cycle or three cycles, were compared. Single OT co‐administration increased proportion of follicles with atresia associated with luteinization, but not other types of atresia. No influence of multiple OT co‐administration on follicular atresia was recorded. Multiple IBMX and dbcAMP co‐administration decreased the proportion of atretic follicles and increased the proportion of healthy follicles without atresia.  相似文献   

15.
Multilevel society is one of the most complex social systems in natural ecosystems and is a typical feature among some primates. Given the potential connection between social behavior and gut microbiome composition, the multilevel social system could affect the primate gut microbiome. Here, based on long-term observation (e.g. social unit dynamics, transfer, and behavior), we investigated this potential integrating 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing and behavior data in Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti), which possess a multilevel social group based on one male units (OMUs, each unit with several breeding females and their offspring) and all-male unit (AMU, several bachelor males residing together). We found that the mean unweighted Unifrac distance between adult males from different OMUs was significantly lower than that between adult females from different OMUs (paired Wilcoxon test, P = 0.007). There was no significant difference in the mean unweighted Unifrac distance between females within the same OMU or between females from different OMUs. These findings indicated the potential connection between the defense and invasion of social units and the gut microbiome community in wild Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys. We speculated that the resident males of OMUs displaying a significantly higher similarity in the gut microbial community than that of adult females in separate OMUs might be associated with the sexual differences in their interactions and from previously having cohabitated together in the AMU. Therefore, this study suggested that multilevel societies might have an effect on the gut microbial community in this wild nonhuman primate species.  相似文献   

16.
为了研究苜蓿黄酮对大鼠生长、繁殖及内分泌系统的影响,本实验设计了3个苜蓿黄酮剂量组(120,400,1 200 mg/kg)和2个对照组(己烯雌酚0.5 mg/kg、空白对照组)。通过化学发光法对大鼠雌二醇(E2)、催乳素(PRL)、孕酮(P)、生长激素(GH)检测,并对大鼠繁殖相关的指标,包括子宫湿重/系数、卵巢湿重/系数、采食量、日增重、产仔数、初生窝重进行测定。结果显示,低剂量的苜蓿黄酮显著提高了性成熟雌鼠的E2水平以及子宫湿重/系数(P<0.05),显著降低了卵巢湿重/系数(P<0.05)。对未性成熟雌鼠,苜蓿黄酮对激素的影响不显著,但中、低剂量组显著降低了子宫湿重(P<0.05)。此外,苜蓿黄酮和对照组比,在采食量上不存在显著差异,但性成熟大鼠的产仔数和初生窝重有提高的趋势,中、高剂量组的产仔数和空白对照比,分别提高0.4%和2.2%。中、高剂量组的初生窝重和空白对照比,分别提高5.14%和0.10%,但差异性并不显著(P>0.05)。配种前灌胃不同剂量的苜蓿黄酮在一定程度上影响了性成熟和未性成熟雌鼠的激素分泌和生殖器官的发育, 但未能明显改善雌鼠的繁殖性能。  相似文献   

17.
The determination of gender in wild animals is essential for behavioural and ecological studies, and also for conservation. The objectives of this study were (i) the determination of gender in faecal samples of Iberian wolf based on the differential concentrations of sexual steroid hormones (SSH) and (ii) to analyse the profiles of SSH in males and females (considering the gender determination carried out previously) during the non‐reproductive and reproductive periods. The quantification of androgens (testosterone, T), progestin (progesterone, P) and oestrogen (oestradiol, E) was conducted by means of enzyme immunoassay. The k‐means conglomerate analysis showed that the 59 faecal samples grouped into three different conglomerates, considering SSH levels. Groups 1 and 2 showed higher levels of T than group 3. Therefore, the faecal samples included in groups 1 and 2 (17 samples) corresponded to males and those of group 3 (42 samples) to females. The levels of T + P + E and T/P were higher in the group of males than in the group of females. The results of this study also showed that levels of T in males were higher during the reproductive period than in the non‐reproductive period. However, the concentrations of P and E turned out to be higher during the non‐reproductive season. In females, the levels of the three hormones (T, P and E) were higher during the reproductive period.  相似文献   

18.
This experiment was conducted to study the effect of dietary omega6 (n‐6) to omega3 (n‐3) fatty acid (FA) ratios on performance and reproduction of broiler breeders. In experiment 1, 400 females and 40 males (30 week age) of Ross 308 broiler breeder (20 females and two males in each pen) were randomly assigned to one of the four diets with n‐6/n‐3 FA ratios of 4, 6, 8 and 16 (control). As a measure of hatchability, fertility of eggs and general incubation traits, 1,200 eggs (60 eggs from each pen) were collected and incubated for 21 days and embryo liver and brain fatty acid profile in 14 and 21 days were determined. In experiment 2, 48 males (three males in each pen) randomly assigned to one of the four diets with n‐6/n‐3 FA ratios of 4, 6, 8 and 16 (control). Semen was collected twice weekly, and semen volume, spermatozoa concentration and motility and alive and dead spermatozoa were estimated. Egg production and egg mass were decreased by n‐6/n‐3 FA ratios of 4:1 and 6:1 (p < .05). There were no significant differences between treatments on breeder's body weight, eggs fertility and hatchability, embryonic mortality and semen features. Linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid and total n‐3 of egg yolk, semen, testis and liver and brain of embryo and day‐old chicken were increased while concentration of linoleic acid, arachidonic acid and docosatetraenoic acid of mentioned tissues were decreased by increasing n‐6/n‐3 FA ratios (p > .05). In conclusion, absolute amount of n‐3 and n‐6 FAs in broiler breeder diet may be more important than n‐6/n‐3 FA ratios and to consider reproductive and performance traits of breeders, it is necessary to supply higher levels of n‐3 and n‐6 FA with respect to n‐6/n‐3 FA ratios.  相似文献   

19.
凤头鸊鷉广泛分布于开阔的平原湖泊、江河和沼泽等地带,是环境变化的指示物种。凤头鸊鷉在我国分布较广,数量较多,但近年来数量也呈下降趋势,本文通过对凤头鸊鷉繁殖前期的行为观察得出了在这一时期的日行为节律以及各行为在1d中的时间分配比例,1d中以游水行为为主占37．81％,其他行为情况分别是理羽占22．48％、静栖占13．44％、潜水占11．16％、觅食占10．89％、求偶占3．86％、卧巢行为占0．27％,其他行为占0．08％。凤头稿鸊鷉雌雄个体行为发生的频次无明显差异,只是进入繁殖前期,雌性个体在卧巢行为占很高比例。  相似文献   

20.
Infanticide was first observed in langurs nearly 50 years ago, and this rare phenomenon has been inferred to have either an evolutionarily adaptive function or to be a pathological and non‐functional behavior. In this study, we report 5 male takeover events in one‐male groups of white‐headed langurs in the Nongguan Karst Hills, Guangxi, China from 1998 to 2006. We recorded 13 attacks on 9 infants by extra‐group males or new resident males. During the male takeovers, all of the infants younger than 6 months (with an average age of 3.6 months [N = 11]) in the groups disappeared. The infant death rate during the 4.2 months after takeover by a new male was significantly higher than the infant death rate calculated for most of the year. Older infants that were still nursing (with an average age of 14.1 months [N = 7]) were often attacked and seriously wounded by the extra‐group males or new resident males, but all of them survived. The interbirth intervals of females whose infants were assumed to be killed by males were significantly reduced relative to those of females in groups with stable male tenure (mean = 10 months vs 25 months). Our data suggest that males kill unrelated and unweaned infants during the takeover period to decrease the time until the infants’ mothers resume fertility. Thus, infanticide would support sexual selection theory in white‐headed langurs. The data also show that infanticidal behavior was directed toward the infants, especially those who were still nursing. Female dispersal may function as a counter‐strategy to avoid infanticide.  相似文献   

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