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1.
Kauê de Sousa Guillermo Detlefsen Diego Tobar Elias de Melo Virginio Filho Fernando Casanoves 《Agroforestry Systems》2017,91(6):1119-1127
Silvopastoral systems—the management of trees within pastures from natural regeneration or planting—are a strategy to promote sustainable livestock systems and ecosystems services. Timber is one of the products from these systems with potential to increase family revenues. The management of natural regeneration and population dynamics of trees is a feasible way to harvest timber and maintain environmental services. In this research, we modeled the population dynamics of Pinus oocarpa and Tabebuia rosea, two important timber species of silvopastoral systems in Central America. The results showed that farmers manage a significant density of different tree species from natural regeneration. However, only the species with well-known uses or desired services are allowed to remain. The natural regeneration is more impressive in silvopastoral systems with natural grass than those with exotic grass. Farming practices, for instance use of fire for weed control, are the main reasons for low rates of natural regeneration in pastures with exotic grass. The models of population dynamics for both species showed that the sustainable timber harvest plans are a viable activity in pasturelands under natural-regeneration management plans. Innovative farmers are willing to adopt silvicultural practices and management of population dynamics to increase timber revenues and sustainability if forestry regulations for sustainable use of trees in farms are simplified. 相似文献
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3.
Celia A. Harvey Cristobal Villanueva Rene Gómez Jorge Martinez 《Forest Ecology and Management》2011,261(10):1664-1674
Trees dispersed in pastures are a prominent feature of many Central American landscapes, particularly in cattle producing regions where farmers retain trees to serve as shade, fodder, timber and firewood. The presence of dispersed trees in pastures is often considered as important for the conservation of biodiversity by providing habitat and enhancing landscape connectivity. However, despite their critical productive and environmental roles, little is known about tree distribution within pastures or how farmers’ management decisions influence the trees themselves and their impact on farm productivity and biodiversity conservation. Here, we present a synthesis of (a) the abundance, composition, and size of dispersed trees in four important cattle producing regions of Costa Rica (Caňas and Río Frío) and Nicaragua (Rivas and Matiguás), based on inventory of 18,669 trees on 1492 ha of pasture, (b) the local knowledge, management and use of trees by cattle farmers, and (c) opportunities for ensuring sustainable management of dispersed trees in pasture-dominated landscapes. Dispersed trees were common in all four landscapes, with mean frequency ranging from 8.0 trees ha−1 in Caňas to 33.4 trees ha−1 in Matiguás. A total of 255 tree species were found in pastures across the four landscapes. The total number of tree species per landscape varied from 72 in Rivas to 101 in Caňas and Rio Frio, with mean species richness per farm ranging from 22.9 in Rio Frio to 45.9 in Matiguás. In all four landscapes, a handful of tree species dominated the pastures, with the ten most abundant species in each landscape accounting for >70% of all trees recorded. Most of these common tree species provide fruits or foliage eaten by cattle, or are important timber or firewood species, and are deliberately retained by farmers for these uses. In all four landscapes, farmers had a detailed knowledge of tree attributes affecting pasture and animal productivity, and influenced tree cover through pasture management activities and occasional tree cutting. Current farm management practices are gradually decreasing the diversity of trees in pastures, and in some cases also tree density, reducing their contribution to farm productivity and biodiversity conservation. To reverse this trend, incentives are required to encourage cattle farmers to retain and enhance tree cover in pastures, through the adoption of pasture management practices that favor the regeneration and persistence of a diverse range of tree species. 相似文献
4.
Stuart Ling Hilary Smith Lamphoune Xaysavongsa Richard Laity 《Small-Scale Forestry》2018,17(3):343-360
Tree grower groups have been promoted by governments and development programs worldwide as a means to generate income and improve the livelihoods of smallholders by generating economies of scale and improving their bargaining power. In Luang Prabang province, Lao PDR, three plantation teak grower groups were examined using an action research approach over a 4-year period between 2013 and 2016, with the aim of fostering improved returns to group members. At the beginning of the study, it was observed that despite the existence of a price premium from certification, the unpredictable nature of sales, complex government regulations and the small contribution of teak to total household incomes combined to thwart efforts by the group to sell trees on the regular basis that would make membership worthwhile for growers. An intervention by group members and researchers to develop an internally funded enterprise unit within the group structure which added value to local timber proved to be technically feasible, although it is still too early to judge its sustainability. However, this opportunity did not immediately benefit smallholders since high entry costs, poor technical knowledge and low financial transparency dissuaded group members from buying shares in the enterprise. Improved returns to smallholders will likely occur in time as a result of local enterprises paying higher prices for timber, rather than through active group membership. 相似文献
5.
Farmers’ Fruit Tree-growing Strategies in the Humid Forest Zone of Cameroon and Nigeria 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
Ann Degrande Kathrin Schreckenberg Charlie Mbosso Paul Anegbeh Victoria Okafor Jacques Kanmegne 《Agroforestry Systems》2006,67(2):159-175
Many studies have stressed the importance of trees to rural households. Few, however, have focused on actual numbers and densities
of trees in different land-use systems. Based on community-level participatory research in six communities, semi-structured
household interviews and full-farm fruit tree inventories, this study aims to understand farmers’ tree-planting strategies.
Relationships between the diversity, number and density of fruit trees and farm size, land-use system, land tenure, distance
from the homestead, proximity to the forest, market access and household characteristics are investigated. The key factors
determining the differences in tree-growing strategies between communities appear to be market access, land use and access
to forest resources. Within communities, differences between individual households were less easy to explain but tenure was
important as was farm size. Smaller farms had higher fruit tree densities, a relationship that was particularly strong in
communities with good market access. Overall there was a great deal of variability both within and between communities and
many of the factors affecting tree-planting decisions were found to be highly inter-related. Despite this complexity, trees
on farm play an important role in rural household's livelihoods. Therefore, expansion of tree cultivation should be recognized
as a promising pathway to achieve increased income and food production by policy makers and extensionists alike. In addition
to improved tree propagation and management techniques, farmers should be strengthened in the processing and marketing of
agroforestry tree products and more emphasis should be placed on the development of tree enterprises. By doing so, farmers
will be able to earn a more important and consistent income from fruit trees, contributing to the Millennium Development Goals. 相似文献
6.
Deforestation and degradation of productive lands are serious threats to the sustainability of forestry/agricultural practices
in Kenya. In the last two decades farm forestry (FF) has been promoted through pilot projects among local communities as an
example of sustainable land use. However adoption of FF is limited outside the project locations because FF improvement measures
focused mainly on biological (e.g. succession, biodiversity and traditional industrial timber production) and technical concerns
(e.g. material input delivery such as providing free tree seedlings for field planting) rather than local values, and interests
and the constraints facing farmers. This study examined the local farm priorities and constraints and the prospects for the
wider implementation of farm-level tree planting in four communities in Rachuonyo District. Using interviews with 597 randomly
selected household heads, the study assessed farmer’s production assets and activities, land tenure, priority tree species
and the constraints to growing trees on farms. Results show that farm labour is represented by a young population, 56.3% under
the age of forty. They are mainly engaged in small-scale mixed cropping integrated with multipurpose trees and some livestock.
Tree products contribute about 32% to household cash income, more than any other source (agricultural products, labour sales,
etc). Females were more often household heads and had considerable influence over productive activities, making them an important
target group in FF development. Farmers preferred exotic tree species due to their ability to provide short-term cash income,
fuel and shade. Farmers’ concerns included population pressure on limited farmlands and the problem of credit for agricultural
inputs. Given the feeling of secured tenure arrangement and influence of tree products on the household economy, farmers are
likely to invest more in efficient land uses such as FF if consideration is given to local priorities. 相似文献
7.
Identifying important biophysical and social determinants of on-farm tree growing in subsistence-based traditional agroforestry systems 总被引：1，自引：1，他引：0
Many expert-designed agroforestry projects enunciated in 1970s around the world, particularly in the developing countries,
had uneven success due to inadequate adoption or abandonment after adoption. There are many empirical studies on factors affecting
on-farm tree cultivation mainly where expert-designed agroforestry programmes were introduced but lacking in case of traditional
agroforestry. Moreover, the concern to identify key factors influencing on-farm tree growing is gaining importance. The present
study identifies key factors in on-farm tree growing based on investigation of traditional agroforestry using logistic regression
approach. The study is based on household survey of 401 households located in Indian Western Himalaya. The factors affecting
on-farm tree growing were grouped into: biophysical (included land use and infrastructural aspects) and social. Models predicting
on-farm tree growing for each category were developed and key factors affecting on-farm tree growing in the respective category
were identified. A composite model was also developed by combining biophysical and social factors. In the present study, farm
size, agroclimatic zone, soil fertility, mobility and importance of tree for future generations respectively were the key
factors which influenced tree growing. In contrast to many previous studies which considered either biophysical or social
factors, the composite model in the present study reveals that both biophysical and social factors are simultaneously important
in motivating the farmers to grow trees on their farms in traditional agroforestry. Moreover, the present study open vistas
for using farmers’ experience and knowledge of adoption of agroforestry to stimulate on-farm tree growing. The wider implication
of the study is that biophysical as well as social variables should be considered together in designing suitable agroforestry
systems in various parts of the world. 相似文献
8.
Eucalypt (Eucalyptus spp.) tree farming is a source of income for many smallholders in developing and emerging countries and critical to the resource
supply of many pulp and paper companies. These companies rely on smallholders adopting tree farming, sometimes by offering
a contract. This paper reports a study from four regions of Thailand, where smallholder eucalypt tree farming is important,
which investigated what characteristics of smallholders were associated with greater adoption of tree farming. A total of
461 eucalypt tree farmers and 171 non-tree farmers were randomly selected and surveyed in these regions, using a door-to-door
household survey. A logit analysis corroborated hypotheses about the drivers of adoption. Qualitative analyses were used to
inform interpretation of the quantitative results and shed light on the role of eucalypt tree farming in smallholders’ livelihood.
Results demonstrate that those with suitable land available are more likely to adopt eucalypt tree farming than others. In
addition, perception of land tenure security matters in the adoption of tree growing, but holding a formal land tenure document
does not. Adoption of eucalypt tree farming in Thailand is not part of a land use intensification strategy. Instead, eucalypts
are used as an alternative crop for low productivity land, on which eucalypts are the most profitable crop. Eucalypt tree
farming also gives smallholders an opportunity to diversify their income. In addition, this alternative land use has the advantage
of requiring low labour inputs between planting and harvest. This is particularly advantageous for many tree growers who have
off-farm income or rely on hired labour for farming their land. 相似文献
9.
Understanding patterns of tree adoption on farms in semi-arid and sub-humid Ethiopia 总被引：1，自引：1，他引：0
Miyuki Iiyama Abayneh Derero Kaleb Kelemu Catherine Muthuri Ruth Kinuthia Ermias Ayenkulu Evelyn Kiptot Kiros Hadgu Jeremias Mowo Fergus L. Sinclair 《Agroforestry Systems》2017,91(2):271-293
Trees on farms are a widespread feature of landscapes across a large part of Ethiopia with an important role in enhancing the resilience of smallholder livelihoods through the provision of ecosystem services. Despite their importance, little is known about what trees are planted or retained from natural regeneration by different types of farmers that results in the pattern of tree cover found in the region. We address this knowledge gap through analysis of household survey data from semi-arid and sub humid areas of Oromia regional state. A set of composite variables that represent distinctive patterns of tree cover on farms were derived from principal component analysis and Pearson correlation analysis. This revealed two major tree adoption strategies: farmer managed natural regeneration (FMNR) of trees to meet subsistence needs as well as contributing to other ecosystem services; and, high value agroforestry (HVAF) involving planted trees used largely to produce fruits, timber and fodder. Regression analysis further identified fine-scale variation in ecological and socio-economic factors that affect which of these two broad strategies are adopted by farmers. Favorable climatic conditions coupled with institutional arrangements to control free grazing were pre-conditions for HVAF, whereas poor biophysical potential and sloping land provided a positive incentive for farmers to adopt FMNR. Farmers with preferences for tree species with multiple utilities and locational flexibility favored FMNR while adoption of HVAF was more asset-driven. Our findings reveal that farmers integrate many native and exotic tree species on their farms to meet their variable farm conditions, needs and asset profiles in stark contrast to most tree promotion efforts that focus on a few, usually exotic, tree species. We recommend that future agroforestry promotion should embrace a diversity of tree species appropriate to matching the fine scale variation in ecological conditions and farmer circumstances encountered in the field. 相似文献
10.
Most agroforestry-adoption studies are based on surveys of "non-adopters." An understanding of the circumstances that have led to a change of attitude of the adopters will be valuable in our efforts to enhance adoption rates. This study was undertaken to provide such knowledge based on a large agroforestry extension project involving 200,000 farm families and covering 25% of all rural households in Haiti. A questionnaire-based survey of the project participants was conducted covering 1,540 households and 2,295 fields in four regions of Haiti. Information was recorded about each farm and family member through interviews with farmers and visits to their farms. The results confirmed that farmers make decisions about tree culture based on household- and field characteristics. Different farmers consider trees differently depending upon how they fit into their farm-family strategy. In general, farmers installed tree hedgerows on fields of less secure tenure, of lesser fertility, and steeper slope, while on closer, more fertile fields of greater tenure security, tree seedlings and fruit trees were more common and there was a greater density of mature trees (>10 cm DBH). More money was realized from sale of tree products on actively cropped fields in more secure tenure and having more fertile soil. Older farmers managed a greater density of trees, especially when the land was in secure tenure status. This broad-based study shows that agroforestry implementation strategies in poor countries such as Haiti should be based on a thorough knowledge of how farmers use household and field characteristics to make adoption decisions. It also suggests that agroforestry-adoption studies should account for the dynamic changes occurring during extended time periods.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
11.
Perceptions of the benefits of agroforestry practices (AFPs) and the level of utilization of these practices by male and female
participants were examined in the agroforestry programs of the Akwa Ibom and Cross River State Governments of the South–South
region of Nigeria. Responses were derived from 250 randomly selected respondents. Overall, respondents perceived the major
benefit of agroforestry practices as enhancement of environmental conservation. Female respondents however perceived increased
income as the major benefit of agroforestry practices. A composite perception index revealed that women farmers were more
favourably disposed than male respondents to the utilization of agroforestry practices. The farmers were favourably disposed
to the utilization of only five of the 16 identified AFPs in the study area, including ‘leaving of isolated woody trees on
farmlands’, ‘utilizing woody trees as windbreaks’ and to ‘demarcate farm boundaries’, ‘planting of woody trees in combination
with fruit trees’, and ‘planting of woody trees in combination with vegetable crops’. Male and female responses were generally
similar although a major difference was observed with regard to ‘planting of trees for fuel wood’. The composite index, however,
revealed a general low level of utilization of AFPs, although female farmers were relatively more disposed to the utilization
of AFPs. The key policy implication of the study is the necessity to embark on sustained education and environmental awareness
campaign, with a focus on presenting AFPs as livelihood sustaining and risk mitigation activities, against its present misperception
as simply a government strategy to increase the stock of woody trees in the environment. This policy should endeavour to target
landless women farmers who have been found to be more interested in the adoption of AFPs into their farming system. 相似文献
12.
The Dauphiné province in south-eastern France is a major area for walnut orchards. Growers manage their orchards with some
specific agroforestry features: grafted walnut trees may be pruned to form a bottom log with a timber end use (dual purpose
trees), and intercrops may be grown between the tree lines. These agroforestry practices are however only partially adopted.
Three surveys were conducted in 1993, 1995 and 1996 to elicit the farmer motivations for adopting or rejecting agroforestry
management features. The walnut industry is a key activity in two parts of Dauphiné: the Isère valley, and the Diois basin.
The reasons for adoption of agroforestry practices are discussed. In the Isère valley, the priority is given to walnut production
in specialised farms, and the extension services are opposed to agroforestry practices. In the dryer Diois area, the main
explanations for agroforestry adoption were the welfare of the farmer family, the age of the farm manager, and the contribution
of walnut production to the family income. Dual purpose management schemes were characterised by extended investment return
delays, but proved to be the most rewarding schemes when practised with intercrops. A very extensive tree management with
few pest control operations improved the profitability. Intensive orchards had a low bequest value at the time of inheritance,
in contrast to dual-purpose orchards. The age of the farmer at planting time appeared to be a key criterion for agroforestry
management adoption.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
13.
We identified the major non-timber forest products （NTFPs）, their contributions to household incomes, and the determinants influenc-ing engagement of households in using NTFPs in the Bonga forest area of Gimbo and Decha Districts of Kaffa Zone, southwest Ethiopia. Six Kebeles （the lowest administrative unit in Ethiopia） were sampled from two Districts and 150 households were randomly sampled using propor-tional-to-size techniques based on the number of farm households in each Kebele. Secondary data were collected from and focus group discussions were conducted with selected individuals. The farmers diversified liveli-hood activities such as crop and livestock production, collection of NTFPs and off-farm activities. NTFPs played a significant role in household incomes. The contribution from the major NTFPs （forest coffee, honey and spices） accounted for 47% of annual household in-come. The role of NTFPs was influenced by a number of factors. Vari-ables including being native to the area （＋）, total land holding （＋）, pos-session of livestock （＋） and access to extension （＋） significantly affected forest coffee production. Age of household head （-）, land holding （＋） and distance of the market from the residence （-） significantly affected honey production. Size of landholding （＋）, distance to market （-） and distance of the forest from the residence （-） were significant variables determining the NTFP incomes derived by the households. Attention is needed in the design of policies and strategies for the well-being of households to the contribution of NTFPs to local incomes and the variables that affect the collection of NTFPs must be considered. 相似文献
14.
Do socio-psychological factors matter in agroforestry planning? Lessons from smallholder traditional agroforestry systems 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
Most of the well planned rural development forestry programs of the 1970s, and agroforestry in particular, were either not
adopted by the intended beneficiaries or failed to meet the needs and aspirations of the rural people, particularly in the
developing countries. The reasons for non-adoption in some cases appear to be technical, bio-physical, social and economic
(termed as rational reasons by the planners), but in other situations the reasons are not so easily recognisable and comprehended
(termed irrational reasons). These irrational reasons are the perceptions and attitude of the farmer towards farm practices,
and their role in agroforestry planning has remained almost completely neglected. The present study is based on a household
survey of the farmers in traditional agroforestry systems of Western Himalaya and investigates the importance of perceptional
and attitudinal aspects of the farmers with regard to agroforestry adoption and extension. In the present study, farmers’
perceptions of restrictions on felling of trees from their own land and attitudes towards agroforestry were the most important
sociopsychological factors which influenced tree growing. This study implies a need to take into account the socio-psychological
factors of the farmers for planning socially acceptable agroforestry programs. The importance of study of various de jure rules and regulations controlling the use of on-farm tree resources and related exemptions and their association with farmers’
perceptions and tree growing is highlighted to develop policies to encourage tree growing in agroforestry. 相似文献
15.
Abebe Mekoya Simon J. Oosting Salvador Fernandez-Rivera Akke J. Van der Zijpp 《Agroforestry Systems》2008,73(2):141-153
Many organizations in Ethiopia have for many years promoted exotic multipurpose fodder trees (EMPFT) for livestock feed and
soil improvement. Despite the apparent benefits, the number of farmers planting these trees was low. The objectives were to
elucidate farmers’ perceptions about their use value, management practices and constraints to adoption in three districts
representing annual (one wheat-based and one teff-based) and perennial (coffee-based) crop-livestock systems in the Ethiopian
highlands. Data were collected from 235 farm households. Most farmers (95.3%) had awareness of EMPFTs and the principal information
sources were development agents (75.3%). Over half of the farmers were motivated to plant EMPFTs for feed value. Motivation
for other purposes depended on cropping system, vegetation cover and availability of alternative local fodder trees in the
area. Farmers had positive perceptions about EMPFTs for their feed value and contribution to soil conservation. Current adopters
had a mean number of 587 (SE ± 84) EMPFTs per farm. Major constraints to adoption of EMPFTs were agronomic problems, low multipurpose
value, and land shortage. Majority of farmers (89.8%) were interested to either continue or begin fodder tree development.
Of the interested respondents, 44.5% preferred local fodder trees whereas 55.5% preferred EMPFTs. We conclude that farmers
are aware of use values of EMPFTs while perceived constraints suggest that introduction of EMPFTs need consideration of farmers
multiple criteria, but also awareness of feeding fodder trees and resource availability. Moreover, current development approaches
have to recognize the importance of involving the end-users at all stages through participatory approaches to enhance adoption. 相似文献
16.
M. Bertomeu 《Small-Scale Forestry》2006,5(1):57-81
In the Philippines, timber production on small farms has become profitable as a result of reduced supplies due to extensive
deforestation and increasing demand. In the early 1990s, when the price of timber was high, farmers were promised huge returns
from tree farming. However, widespread planting of few species has led to oversupply and a sharp decline in the price of farm-grown
timber. Moreover, low intercrop yields as a result of competition from fast-growing trees and low timber yields due to poor
tree management, further reduce net economic returns. In spite of this, interest in tree farming remains high. This paper
examines the private profitability of two tree-maize systems, namely trees in blocks and trees in hedgerows, compared with the alternative of maize monocropping. The analysis reveals that maize monocropping provides higher returns
to land at the current timber price, but considerably lower returns to labour, than the maize-tree systems tested. This suggests
that tree farming is a more attractive option for labour and capital-constrained households or those with off-farm opportunities
that compete for their labour. These farmers may raise productivity and income by planting trees on the excess land that cannot
be devoted to annual crops. The analysis also indicates that wide-spaced tree hedgerows are superior to tree blocks, due to
lower establishment and management costs, longer periods of viable intercropping and more rapid tree growth. 相似文献
17.
Zerihun Nigussie Atsushi Tsunekawa Nigussie Haregeweyn Enyew Adgo Makoto Nohmi Mitsuru Tsubo Dagnachew Aklog Derege Tsegaye Meshesha Steffen Abele 《Small-Scale Forestry》2017,16(2):219-233
The development of woodlots as an additional source of livelihood and as a land management option for small-scale farmers is a challenging issue in the cereal-based subsistence farming systems of north-western Ethiopia. There is a need to understand why and which factors determine the decisions of small-scale farmers to grow short-rotation woodlots on their land. Data used in this study were collected from a survey of 200 randomly selected households in the region. A Tobit regression model was used to determine predictor variables for farmers’ decisions to allocate land to planting Acacia decurrens (J.C. Wendl.) Willd. and at what density trees are planted on the respective plots. The most important motivations for planting A. decurrens were income, soil fertility management, and soil and water conservation. Having a male head of household, long distance to markets and plots being on marginal land, among other factors, increased the allocation of land to A. decurrens woodlots. Having a male head of household, access to credit and plots being on marginal land, among other factors, increased tree planting density. Age had a negative effect on both allocation of land to woodlots and tree density, whereas farm size had an inverted U-shaped relationship with both decisions. These results suggest that wider expansion of A. decurrens-based plantation systems could be achieved through improving extension, credit access and road infrastructure to connect small-scale farmers to markets and finance. 相似文献
18.
This paper presents a case of planting and management of natural regeneration of shihuahuaco (Dipteryx spp.) by recent migrants in a Peruvian Amazonian logging frontier. We interviewed residents of three communities of smallholders in Irazola District, Province of Padre Abad, Region of Ucayali, located within the historic and actual boundaries of an active logging concession, and conducted growth studies of shihuahuaco trees planted in two mixed-species agroforestry fields, over a period of 3 years. We found that the majority of landholders were managing the natural regeneration of valuable hardwood timber trees, and planting seedlings on their lands. Growth of shihuahuaco trees in agroforestry fields was comparable to growth rates in managed silvicultural plantations, which suggests the potential for local smallholders activities to contribute to conservation of genetic stock and eventual renewal of populations depleted by logging. We recommend greater recognition and inclusion of local people, with their innovative and productive silvicultural practices, in efforts to remediate the impacts of selective logging of high-value timber species. 相似文献
19.
Smallholder perceptions of agroforestry projects in Panama 总被引：7，自引：1，他引：7
The potential effects of agroforestry systems on conservation and development have been well documented. Panama has seen a
substantial rise in the number of projects with an agroforestry component in the 1990s. There has been insufficient research
on the actual impacts of these projects on smallholders and of farmers' attitudes towards these systems. This study explores
the perceived socioeconomic and environmental impacts of five agroforestry projects in Panama. A total of 68 smallholders
were administered semi-structured interviews. In addition, 13 agroforestry experts from NGOs, government departments and research
institutes were interviewed, and their responses were compared with those of the smallholders. While the projects led to an
increase in the standard of living by providing wood products and fruit for domestic consumption, farm income levels generally
remained unchanged. This was due primarily to limited market development, the lack of marketing organizations and poor access
roads. In terms of environmental impacts, the farmers' responses suggested a slight decline in slash-and-burn agriculture,
and an increase in tree planting activities. Some environmental benefits were observed by farmers, including reduced soil
erosion, increased soil fertility, and improved quality and quantity of water sources. Nevertheless, slash-and-burn agriculture
was still the norm for the majority of farmers. Most farmers continued to harvest wood from primary and secondary growth to
meet their domestic wood requirements, rather than relying on trees planted in agroforestry projects. The main obstacles preventing
increased agroforestry adoption included insufficient agroforestry extension, inappropriate project design or management (such
as top-down management approaches, and the use of food incentives), smallholders' economic constraints, and larger policy
issues. Recommendations are proposed to improve project design and management, and to address the economic and policy constraints.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
20.
Shaded cacao (Theobroma cacao) cultivation is a tropical land-use that has potential to reduce pressure on the forest and
provide additional income to smallholder growers. A land-use system (LUS) model was formulated to represent the economic returns
derived from shaded cacao production practiced by smallholders in the Toledo district of Belize. Sixty scenarios were tested
to elicit response of net-present-value (NPV), returns to labor, and annual returns to land (ARTL) to individual changes in
10 system parameters. Further scenarios tested the combined interactions between hardwood shade tree type, planting density,
time to harvest hardwoods, cacao cultivation practice, and expected output. As a modeling exercise, LUS analysis highlights
system components that government agencies, donors, NGOs, extension agents, and smallholders should target with policies,
agri-silvi- culture projects, and further research. Results identify more favorable credit, labor-saving technology, better
shade-management practices, grafting, and incorporating non-hardwood shade trees and laurel (Cordia alliadora) as interventions
that could improve cacao financial performance and encourage adoption. At present, the model cannot predict whether smallholders
would respond to recommendations and invest in shaded cacao cultivation in lieu of alternative agricultural land-uses or off-farm
employment. 相似文献