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1.
The control of the southern cattle tick, Boophilus microplus (Canestrini), in Mexico and many other countries relies on chemical acaricides. Boophilus microplus has developed resistance to all major classes of acaricides in recent years. To gain a better understanding of the resistance and to develop resistance management strategies that benefit both Mexican ranchers and USDA's cattle fever tick eradication program (CFTEP), the authors used larval bioassay techniques to determine levels of resistance to permethrin and amitraz and then evaluated synergism between these two acaricides in one susceptible laboratory tick strain and four resistant strains originating from Mexico and Brazil. To examine mechanisms of resistance to permethrin in these strains, the frequency of a mutated sodium channel gene was determined using a PCR assay. The tick strains from Mexico and Brazil demonstrated 49.4- to over 672.2-fold resistance to permethrin, and up to 94.5-fold resistance to amitraz. While the San Roman strain from Mexico was the most permethrin-resistant strain, the Santa Luiza strain from Brazil was the most amitraz-resistant strain. A significant correlation was found between the permethrin resistance ratio and the allelic frequency of the sodium channel mutation. Significant synergism between permethrin and amitraz was found when one acaricide was tested in the presence of another. Synergism ratios ranged from 1.5 to 54.9 when amitraz was tested as a synergist for permethrin. Similar synergism ratios were obtained when permethrin was tested as a synergist for amitraz. Permethrin caused virtually no mortality in the San Roman strain, even at the highest concentration (3294 microg cm(-2)). Adding amitraz (11.0 microg cm(-2)) to permethrin led to a dramatic increase in larval mortality, even at very low concentrations of permethrin.  相似文献   

2.
A dieldrin-resistant and a susceptible strain of the tick Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi Neumann, 1897 from East Africa were compared for susceptibility to nine organophosphorus and a carbamate acaricides, using an internationally approved oil-based packet test. As only minor differences in response existed between the strains, the presence of cross resistance may be excluded. For some of the acaricides, distinct susceptibility classes were recognised which were probably genetically determined. The tolerances existed independently of the organochlorine-susceptibility status and were low (by a factor less than 3), except in the case of dimethoate for which resistance factors of up to 10 were present. As susceptibility data were not assessed prior to introduction of the compounds in the field, the lowest susceptibility classes may now be considered as providing baseline data. When compared with data from susceptible reference strains of other ticks such as Boophilus microplus from Australia and R. appendiculatus from East Africa, it is feasible that the tolerances observed in the laboratory will not interfere with practical control.  相似文献   

3.
A residual bioassay was used to determine insecticide susceptibility in populations of Colarado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), in eastern North Carolina. Mean bioassay mortalities were subjected to correlation analysis to assess patterns of resistance among tested insecticides. Within insecticide classes, cross-resistance patterns were observed between carbaryl and carbofuran (carbamates), fenvalerate and permethrin (pyrethroids), and among azinphosmethyl, methamidophos, and phosmet (organophosphates). Significant associations between insecticides from different insecticide classes were concluded to be due to multiple resistance. Knowledge of multiple and cross-resistance patterns are discussed in relation to the bioassay as a tool for monitoring insecticide resistance.  相似文献   

4.
Effects of two acaricides, permethrin and amitraz, with different modes of action, on gas exchange and water balance of the lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum, were examined using a flow-through carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor analyzer. Untreated adult female ticks exhibited a distinct discontinuous gas exchange pattern (DGEP) with no measurable water loss. Similarly, ticks with acetone (a solvent) showed little change in gas exchange and water loss. Topical treatment of ticks with a lethal dose of permethrin caused immediate major water loss and long-lasting high frequency DGEP, with increased amplitude of CO2 release. A small water loss spike was observed for each CO2 release. Treatment of ticks with amitraz abolished the DGEP and elicited a long-lasting continuous gas exchange pattern, indicating significantly increased tick metabolism. No detectable water loss was observed during amitraz-elicited continuous gas exchange. Treatment of ticks with a mixture of sub-lethal doses of permethrin and amitraz caused a similar initial major water loss, as in permethrin-treated ticks, followed by a second period of water loss activity at 10–14 h after treatment. Mixture of the two acaricides caused immediate onset of major chaotic CO2 release activities with a significantly elevated baseline CO2 emission level. The standard metabolism rate (SMR, VCO2) of acetone-treated ticks (0.452 μl h−1) was similar to that of the untreated ticks (0.461 μl h−1). Compared to untreated control ticks, permethrin-, amitraz-, and the acaricide mixture-treated ticks exhibited significantly increased SMR (1.054, 1.392 and 1.520 μl h−1 respectively (P < 0.05). Results obtained from this study clearly demonstrated the detrimental effects of permethrin and amitraz on CO2 gas exchange and water balance in A. americanum ticks. The data also revealed subtle differences between permethrin and amitraz in their effects on tick metabolism, specifically gas exchange and water loss. In addition, the study may provide insight into the modes of action of these two acaricides in tick physiology. The results may also help understand the mechanism of synergism between permethrin and amitraz that was reported previously in other ticks and insects.  相似文献   

5.
The present study reports on the insecticidal and acaricidal potentials of dibenzyltrisulfide (DBTS) isolated from the roots of Petiveria alliacea L. using thin layer and high performance liquid chromatography. The 96-h LD50 value (μg per tick) obtained for adult Boophilus microplus (Canestrini) topically treated with DBTS was 0·920. The LD50 values obtained for three commercial acaricides dimethoate, lindane and carbaryl were 4·6, 9·3 and 6·9 μg per tick respectively. The IOD50 and IHD50 (concentrations inhibiting egg laying and hatching by 50% respectively) in μg per tick doses for DBTS were 0·22 and 0·24 respectively. The 24-h LD50 dose (μg per insect) obtained for DBTS on adult Cylas formicarius elegantulus (Summer) was 0·193 μg per insect. The vapour from a stock solution of 5 g litre-1 of DBTS was highly toxic to adult Hypothenemus hampei Ferr. inside coffee berries, inflicting 89% mortality within 24 h. © 1997 SCI.  相似文献   

6.
BACKGROUND: The efficacies of organophosphate pesticides, single‐compound versus multicompound pyrethroid formulations and relatively novel unclassified insecticides/acaricides were compared to find the lowest dosage and highest efficacy for the control of Dermatophagoides farina (Hughes), D. pteronyssinus (Trouessart) and Tyrophagus putrescentiae (Schrank). Formulated active ingredients (AIs) were diluted in water and applied onto filter paper in experimental chambers with ten unsexed adult mites in six replicates. Mite mortality was checked after 24 h. The security index (SI) was calculated for all of the AIs by dividing the recommended rate by the LD90 determined for each species. RESULTS: The tested organophosphates had high LD90 and low SI values. The single‐compound pyrethroids were ineffective (deltamethrin and beta‐cyfluthrin) or had high LD90 and low SI values (cyphenothrin, permethrin, pyrethrum and bifenthrin). The multicompound miticides had low LD90 and high SI values which increased from deltamethrin/S‐bioallethrin to permethrin/S‐bioallethrin/piperonyl butoxide to permethrin/pyriproxyfen/benzyl benzoate. Abamectin, pyridaben, propargite and flufenoxuron were highly active against Dermatophagoides spp. Neem (Acarosan duo) was highly active against all mite species tested. CONCLUSION: The available formulations of multicompound pyrethroids (permethrin/S‐bioallethrin/piperonyl butoxide, permethrin/pyriproxyfen/benzyl benzoate), benzyl benzoate, neem and some field acaricides are effective in suppression of synanthropic mites in laboratory assays. Their LD90 are lower than those of traditionally used organophosphates or single‐compound pyrethroid formulations. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry  相似文献   

7.
BACKGROUND: Spider mites are important crop pests that rapidly develop resistance to acaricides. To investigate whether acaricide resistance is a threat to greenhouse rose culture in the Netherlands, the susceptibility of 15 strains of Tetranychus urticae was tested to several currently used acaricides, and resistance mechanisms were investigated. RESULTS: Although the observed levels of susceptibility differed between strains and acaricides, resistance was detected in most strains. The activity of detoxifying enzymes was significantly increased in most field‐collected strains, and a number of amino acid substitutions known to be involved in resistance were detected. CONCLUSIONS: Resistance levels to traditional acaricides such as bifenthrin and abamectin were prominent, and might result in control failure under field conditions. Resistance to more recently registered compounds was detected in several populations. Resistance levels were generally unstable in the laboratory without selection pressure. The toxicological, biochemical and genetic data in this study will be essential in devising an efficient resistant management for Dutch rose culture. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry  相似文献   

8.
The effect of chlordimeform and 18 related compounds on the aggregation behavior of the negatively geotactic larvae of the cattle tick, Boophilus microplus was investigated. Aggregations were treated and hyperactivity in the forms of immediate dispersal, delayed dispersal, and prolonged leg waving evaluated. A marked structure-activity relationship with delayed dispersal resulted; most active were the N-monomethyl formamidines, N′-(2,4-dimethylphenyl)-N-methylformamidine and demethylchlordimeform. Other compounds, including chlordimeform, with structures compatible with metabolism to N-monomethyl formamidines were also active. Delayed dispersal caused by those possessing the N,N-dimethyl moiety was antagonized after inhibition of oxidative N-demethylation to N-monomethyl analogs by piperonyl butoxide. Since the N-monomethyl moiety had already been reported as important in the killing action of the formamidines in cattle tick larvae, the possibility of a relationship between delayed dispersal and acaricidal effectiveness was examined and percentage mortality at 24 hr found to correlate positively with the rate of onset of dispersal.Delayed dispersal was not characteristic of the responses to other acaricides such as lindane, allethrin, carbaryl, and coumaphos. In addition, the monoamine oxidase inhibitors, tranylcypromine, pargyline, and nialamide, did not induce delayed dispersal and showed no lethal effects.  相似文献   

9.

BACKGROUND

Pyrethroids are among the most applied adulticides worldwide to control mosquito vectors for prevention of arboviral diseases transmission. However, pesticide resistance development in a mosquito population could lead to decreased control efficacy. While most studies investigate the resistant genotype (i.e. kdr, CYP450, etc.) as explanatory variables, few field efficacy studies have measured pesticide quantities deposited at different distances from the sprayer in association with observed mosquito mortality. The current study determined field delivered amounts of an applied ULV permethrin/PBO formulation (31% permethrin + 66% piperonyl butoxide) by GC/MS and estimated practical resistance ratios using caged mosquito females.

RESULTS

For field samples, the extraction method recovered 78 ± 3.92–108 ± 8.97% of the permethrin/PBO formulation when utilizing the peaks of PBO from GC/MS to estimate the concentrations of adulticide deposited near the mosquito cages. The field bioassay showed that the spatial distribution of permethrin/PBO formulation was heterogeneous among three pseudo-replicates within the same distance. Within the quantifiable permethrin/PBO range of 15.7–51.4 ng/cm2, field-collected mosquito mortalities started at 64% and linearly increased reaching 100% only in two areas, while all Sebring susceptible mosquitoes died. The field LC95 resistance ratio (RR) of F0 Cx. quinquefasciatus ranged from 2.65–3.51, falling within the 95% CI of RR95 estimated by laboratory vial assays. Tests with and without PBO indicated P450's enzymes contributed to field resistance.

CONCLUSION

Results showed the suitability of the collection and quantification method to estimate the field resistance ratio at the applied pesticide rate. Pesticide quantification would also allow the association of the known frequencies of resistance mechanisms (e.g. kdr, CYP450) with field mortalities to estimate the resistance level conferred by such mechanisms. © 2023 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.  相似文献   

10.
The San Roman strain of the southern cattle tick, Boophilus microplus, collected from Mexico was previously reported to have a high level of resistance to the organophosphate acaricide coumaphos. An oxidative detoxification mechanism was suspected to contribute to coumaphos resistance in this tick strain, as coumaphos bioassay with piperonyl butoxide (PBO) on larvae of this resistant strain resulted in enhanced coumaphos toxicity, while coumaphos assays with PBO resulted in reduced toxicity of coumaphos in a susceptible reference strain. In this study, we further analyzed the mechanism of oxidative metabolic detoxification with synergist bioassays of coroxon, the toxic metabolite of coumaphos, and the mechanism of target-site insensitivity with acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition kinetics assays. Bioassays of coroxon with PBO resulted in synergism of coroxon toxicity in both the San Roman and the susceptible reference strains. The synergism ratio of PBO on coroxon in the resistant strain was 4.5 times that of the susceptible strain. The results suggested that the cytP450-based metabolic detoxification existed in both resistant and susceptible strains, but its activity was significantly enhanced in the resistant strain. Comparisons of AChE activity and inhibition kinetics by coroxon in both susceptible and resistant strains revealed that the resistant San Roman strain had an insensitive AChE, with a reduced phosphorylation rate, resulting in a reduced bimolecular reaction constant. These data indicate a mechanism of coumaphos resistance in the San Roman strain that involves both insensitive AChE and enhanced cytP450-based metabolic detoxification.  相似文献   

11.
In May 2001 a sample of Culex pipiens pipiens variety molestus Forskål from Marin County, California, collected as larvae and reared to adults, was found to show reduced resmethrin and permethrin knock‐down responses in bottle bioassays relative to a standard susceptible Cx pipiens quinquefasciatus Say colony (CQ1). Larval susceptibility tests, using CQ1 as standard susceptible, indicated that the Marin mosquitoes had LC50 resistance ratios of 18.3 for permethrin, 12 for deltamethrin and 3.3 for pyrethrum. A colony of Marin was established and rapidly developed higher levels of resistance in a few generations after exposure to permethrin as larvae. These selected larvae were shown to cross‐resist to lambda‐cyhalothrin as well as to DDT. However, adult knock‐down time in the presence of permethrin, resmethrin and pyrethrum was not increased after increase in tolerance to pyrethroids as larvae. Partial and almost complete reversion to susceptibility as larvae was achieved with S, S, S‐tributylphosphorotrithioate and piperonyl butoxide (PBO), respectively, suggesting the presence of carboxylesterase and P450 monooxygenase mediated resistance. Insensitive target site resistance (kdr) was also detected in some Marin mosquitoes by use of an existing PCR‐based diagnostic assay designed for Cx p pipiens L mosquitoes. Carboxylesterase mediated resistance was supported by use of newly synthesized novel pyrethroid‐selective substrates in activity assays. Bottle bioassays gave underestimates of the levels of tolerance to pyrethroids of Marin mosquitoes when compared with mortality rates in field trials using registered pyrethroid adulticides with and without PBO. This study represents the first report of resistance to pyrethroids in a feral population of a mosquito species in the USA. Copyright © 2003 Society of Chemical Industry  相似文献   

12.
Poultry red mite susceptibility to permethrin, deltamethrin, tetramethrin, trichlorfon, fenitrothion, carbaryl and DDT, respectively, was screened within the territory of Bohemia by a method of diagnostic doses. The survey indicated widely spread resistance to DDT; in a few cases ineffectivity of permethrin, tetramethrin and trichlorfon, respectively, was also documented.  相似文献   

13.
BACKGROUND: Information on the insecticide susceptibility of striped stem borer, Chilo suppressalis (Walker), is essential for an effective pest management programme. An early detection of resistance development can prompt the modification of current control methods and increase the lifespan of insecticides through the rotation of chemicals with different modes of action. In this study, the susceptibility of this pest in Taiwan to four classes of insecticides has been examined. RESULTS: Over 1000‐fold resistance to carbofuran was detected in C. suppressalis collected from Chiayi and Changhua prefectures, with estimated LC50 values of > 3 mg cm?2. In addition, 61‐fold resistance to cartap was found in the Chiayi population. On the other hand, all tested populations of rice stem borer were still relatively susceptible to chlorpyrifos, fipronil and permethrin, with LC50 values ranging from 30 to 553 ng cm?2. Chilo suppressalis populations collected from the central parts of Taiwan have a higher degree of resistance to the tested insecticides than those from northern areas. CONCLUSION: The occurrence of high resistance to carbofuran in the Chiayi and Changhua areas suggests that this compound should be replaced with chemicals having a different mode of action, such as chlorpyrifos, fipronil and permethrin, to which low cross‐resistance has been detected. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry  相似文献   

14.
Insecticide resistance in the bedbug Cimex hemipterus was investigated using 4211 bedbugs collected from three districts of Sri Lanka. Insecticide bioassays were carried out with discriminating dosages of deltamethrin, permethrin, DDT, malathion, and propoxur. Activity levels of insecticide metabolizing enzymes and the insecticide target site acetylcholinesterase were monitored using biochemical assays. Percentage survivals after DDT, malathion, and propoxur exposure were 41-88%, 18-64%, and 11-41%, respectively. For deltamethrin and permethrin, KT50/KT90 (time to knock-down 50%/90% of the population) values were 0.5-24/1.0-58 and 1.3-10/2.5-47 h, respectively. Both elevated esterase and malathion carboxylesterase mechanisms were present in bedbug populations. Monooxygenase levels were heterogeneous. Organophosphate and carbamate target site acetylcholinesterase, was insensitive in 29-44% of the populations. High DDT resistance was probably due to glutathione S-transferases. Malathion carboxylesterases are mainly responsible for high malathion resistance. High tolerance to both DDT and pyrethroids suggests the presence of ‘kdr’ type resistance mechanism in one population.  相似文献   

15.

BACKGROUND

The control of Aedes aegypti (L.), the main urban vector that causes arboviral diseases such as dengue, Chikungunya and Zika, has proved to be a challenge because of a rapid increase in insecticide resistance. Therefore, adequate monitoring of insecticide resistance is an essential element in the control of Ae. aegypti and the diseases it transmits. We estimated the frequency and intensity (Resistance Frequency Rapid Diagnostic Test [F‐RDT] and Resistance Intensity Rapid Diagnostic Test [I‐RDT]) of pyrethroid resistance in populations of Ae. aegypti from Mexico using the bottle bioassay and results were related to the frequencies of knockdown resistance (kdr) mutations V1016I and F1534C.

RESULTS

All populations under study were resistant to the pyrethroids: bifenthrin (99%), d‐(cis–trans)‐phenothrin (6.3% cis, 91.7% trans) and permethrin (99.5%) according to F‐RDT, and showed moderate to high‐intensity resistance at 10× the diagnostic dose (DD) in I‐RDT. Frequencies of the kdr mutation V1016I in Ae. aegypti populations were correlated with moderate permethrin resistance at 10× DD, whereas F1534C mutation frequencies were correlated with high bifenthrin resistance at 5× DD. Both I1016 and C1535 were highly correlated with high‐intensity phenothrin resistance at 1× to 10× DD.

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed that high frequencies of kdr mutations V1016I and F1534C are reflected in the results of F‐RDT and I‐RDT tests. Bioassays in conjunction with the characterization of genetic resistance mechanisms are indispensable in the strategic and rational management of resistance in mosquitoes. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry
  相似文献   

16.
Induction of the microsomal oxidase system by dietary phenobarbital and β-naphthoflavone was examined in three blowflies, Phormia regina (Mg.), Lucilia illustris (Mg.), and Eucalliphora lilica (Walk.). Responses were similar in adults and larvae of all species. Phenobarbital increased cytochrome P-450 levels up to 9-fold and aldrin epoxidase up to 138-fold. Increases in cytochrome P-450 and aldrin epoxidase caused by β-naphthoflavone were minor relative to those produced by phenobarbital. In toxicity experiments with carbaryl and propoxur tolerance was associated with the amount of microsomal oxidase activity. Using piperonyl butoxide to synergize carbaryl and propoxur there was no clear indication for the use of either the synergist ratio or synergist difference as an indicator of microsomal oxidase activity.  相似文献   

17.
Synergists were used to diagnose possible mechanisms of permethrin resistance in permethrin-selected strains of the tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens (F.). In addition to permethrin, these strains of the tobacco budworm were resistant to α-cyano-pyrethroid insecticides, organophosphorus insecticides and DDT. The monooxygenase-inhibiting prop-2-ynyl aryl ethers were the only effective synergists of permethrin among 16 candidates tested. The most effective synergist was 1,2,4-trichloro-3-(2-propynyloxy)benzene. Piperonyl butoxide, a common monooxygenase-inhibiting synergist in other species and tobacco budworm strains, was inactive. These results suggested the presence and contribution of an unusual monooxygenase in the enzymatic detoxication of permethrin. DDT cross-resistance, which was not synergized, and broad pyrethroid cross-resistance supported previous evidence for target site insensitivity as a second pyrethroid-resistance mechanism in these strains. The actions of S,S,S-tributyl phosphorotrithioate (TBPT) and triphenyl phosphate (TPP) suggested that hydrolytic detoxication, important in methyl parathion-resistance tobacco budworm strains, had little or no role in conferring pyrethroid resistance in these strains.  相似文献   

18.
BACKGROUND: Phytophagous mites such as the European red mite, Panonychus ulmi (Koch), are serious pests in European fruit tree orchards, and a number of acaricides are frequently used to control them. Spirodiclofen (Envidor®) has been a commonly used acaricide for several years. In the present study, European field populations collected in 2009 and 2010 were checked for their susceptibility to spirodiclofen by using discriminating dose and full dose response bioassays. RESULTS: In 2009 and 2010, a total of 63 field populations (including winter eggs) of European red mites were collected in different European countries, and in several populations from south‐western Germany a shifting in susceptibility against spirodiclofen was observed. Full dose response bioassays on different developmental stages of field‐collected strains suggested an age‐dependent expression of resistance because eggs remain fully susceptible to spirodiclofen. Artificial selection with spirodiclofen of one of the field strains resulted in resistance ratios of > 7000. Synergism studies suggest a possible role of cytochrome‐P450‐dependent monooxygenases in spirodiclofen detoxification. Most of the other acaricides from different chemical classes displayed no or low cross‐resistance in a spirodiclofen‐selected strain. CONCLUSION: In order to preserve spirodiclofen as an important tool in spider mite resistance management, the efficacy situation should be continuously monitored, and it is suggested that spirodiclofen be alternated with acaricides coming from different mode‐of‐action classes. An observed age‐specific expression of resistance revealed full susceptibility of eggs, so targeting spirodiclofen particularly against eggs is likely to reduce the selection pressures imposed on other life stages. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry  相似文献   

19.
After feeding 2,4-D or atrazine in a diet to southern armyworm (Spodoptera eridania Cram.) larvae for three days, the effect on total content and activities of cytochrome P450 and on insecticide toxicity were determined. Both 2,4-D and atrazine induced cytochrome P450-catalyzed aldrin epoxidation (AE) and methoxyresorufin O-demethylatin (MROD). The 2,4-D was a more potent inducer for total cytochrome P450 content, whereas atrazine disproportionately increased AE. Both compounds increased MROD significantly. The apparent kinetic characteristics of AE indicates that 2,4-D and atrazine induced similar P450 isozymes (Km 8.78 and 7.80 μM, respectively), which may differ from the constitutive isozyme (Km 3.14 μM). The 2,4-D-induced cytochrome P450 contributed to decreased carbaryl and permethrin toxicity, whereas the atrazine-induced cytochrome P450 caused decreased parathion and permethrin toxicity. The carbaryl toxicity correlated directly with 2,4-D-induced total P450 content and activities but not with atrazine-induced changes. The 2,4-D and atrazine also induced nonspecific esterase activity which may contribute to permethrin detoxification.  相似文献   

20.
Abstract

As part of a continuing programme to aid in the development of new acaricides, the efficacy in the field of four different pour‐on formulations was tested against four economically important tick species in Kenya. Synthetic pyrethroids flumethrin2, cypermethrin (mixed isomers)3, and alpha cypermethrin4 were compared together with an organophosphate, phosmet5. All the acaricides were applied along the dorsal midline of the animals except where Porect was applied onto the ears, neck and face of the animals as an alternative treatment. Bayticol was significantly more effective than all the others tested (P < 0.05) for the duration of the trial of 14 days and would be of immense benefit to farmers who are dipping once or even twice a week and still experience losses from Theileria parva infection or East Coast Fever (ECF). Porect, SF06666 and SF06646 were found inadequate to be used in situations where susceptible cattle are reared in ECF endemic areas. However, they can be used where farmers rear resistant cattle and where the priority is to reduce tick worry without trekking animals for long distances to the dip. SF06666 had poor control over body ticks particularly the Amblyornma species. Porect at special application rates to the ears, face and neck is too cumbersome to be practicable. There was a significant rub‐off effect on to the synthetic pyrethroid control animals, especially Bayticol, which contributed to the low numbers of total ticks in the controls relative to total ticks pre‐treatment.  相似文献   

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