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1.
Abstract.— Tko experiments were conducted to determine the effects of salinity on growth and survival of mulloway Argyrosomus japonicus larvae and juveniles. First, 6-d-old larvae were stocked into different salinities (5, 12.5, 20, 27.5 and 35 ppt) for 14 d. Larvae grew at all salinities, but based on results for growth and survival, the optimum range of salinity for 6-d-old to 20-d-old larvae is 5–12.5 ppt. During this experiment larvae held in all experimental salinities were infested by a dinoflagellate ectoparasite, Amyloodinium sp. Degree of infestation was affected by salinity. There were very low infestation rates at 5 ppt (0.2 parasites/larva). Infestation increased with salinity to 20 ppt (33.1 parasites/larva), then declined with salinity to 35 ppt (1.5 parasites/larva). For the second experiment, juveniles (6.1 ± 0.1 g/fish) were stocked into different salinities (0.6, 5, 10, 20 and 35 ppt) for 28 d. Juveniles were removed from freshwater 3 d after transfer as they did not feed, several fish died and many fish had lost equilibrium. However, when transferred directly to 5 ppt. these stressed fish recovered and behaved normally. Trends in final mean weight and food conversion ratio of juvenile mulloway suggest that fish performed best at 5 ppt. Although salinity (5 to 35 ppt) had no significant ( P > 0.05) effect on growth, survival, or food conversion ratio of juveniles, statistical power of the experiment was low (0.22). Based on these results we recommend that mulloway larvae older than 6 d be cultured at 5 to 12.5 ppt. Optimum growth of juveniles may also be achieved at low salinities.  相似文献   

2.
Abstract.— In South Carolina, studies have been conducted to develop rearing techniques for southern flounder Paralichthys lethostigma a candidate for aquaculture development and stock enhancement programs. To help define environmental tolerances, a variety of salinity studies were conducted with the early life stages of this species. Eggs were buoyant at 32 ppt and sank at 29 ppt with salinities of 30–31 ppt providing varying levels of suspension in the water column. Eggs incubated at 0 and 5 ppt all died, whereas 82.5% hatched at 10 ppt but larvae died shortly thereafter. At 63 h post-fertilization, there were no differences in hatch level for eggs incubated at salinities of 15 to 35 ppt (mean hatch level 98.5%). In a 72-h study, fish 3 wk post-metamorphosis (13.7 mm TL, 50-d-old) were acclimated to seven salinities ranging from 0–30 ppt. Fish held at 0 ppt salinity exhibited a statistically (P < 0.05) lower survival (20.0%) than those exposed to 5–30 ppt salinity concentrations. No differences were detected in survival (mean 99.1%) among fish held in the higher salinities. A second study examined the tolerance of older juveniles to lower salinities. Juvenile flounder (95.2 mm TL, 220-d-old) were acclimated to 0, 1,5 and 10 ppt salinities and reared for 2 wk. Results showed that fish could tolerate salinities of 0–10 ppt (100% survival). These data indicate that salinity tolerance of southern flounder increases with age. In addition to the short duration studies, a replicated 11-mo duration tank grow-out study was conducted at mean salinity 5.4 ppt and mean temperahue 22.6 C with an all male population. Flounder grew from a mean length of 100 mm to 213 mm TL and weight from 8.9 to 104.3 g. Growth of the cultured fish approximated that observed among male flounders in the wild.  相似文献   

3.
Although a stenohaline freshwater fish, the stinging catfish Heteropneustes fossilis, is also available in the freshwater fringes of the coastal areas of Bangladesh, the tolerance of this species to variable environmental salinity has not been thoroughly investigated. Based on median lethal salinity (MLS‐50 96 h), three sublethal salinity levels (3 ppt, 6 ppt and 9 ppt) and a control (0 ppt), each with three replications were selected to observe the effects of mildly brackish conditions on the fish for a period of 90‐day exposure. Better growth and survival were found up to 6 ppt compared with control. Salinity more than 6 ppt appeared unsuitable for H. fossilis fingerling due to increased mortality and reduced growth. To determine biochemical alterations, a few important physiological parameters were observed after 90 days of exposure. Glycogen level of liver and muscle in the fish reared at 9 ppt salinity decreased significantly (P < 0.05) as compared to the control. Glucose level in blood and liver was also found to be increased in fish with increase in salinity. ALP and ATPase activities were reduced significantly in both muscle and liver tissues at higher salinity, indicating the stress mitigation effect. However, all the biochemical parameters were found in normal condition up to 6 ppt compared with control. This evidence suggests that H. fossilis can sustain and grow well below 6 ppt and can be a potential candidate for culture in coastal areas after heavy downpour when the salinities level falls to 6 ppt or lower.  相似文献   

4.
The effects of 5 mg/L of dissolved manganese on juvenile mulloway at salinities of 5, 15 and 45 ppt were determined by comparing their survival, growth and blood plasma and organ chemistry with those of fish grown at the same salinities without manganese addition. Survival of mulloway at 45 ppt in the presence of 5 mg/L of manganese (73 ± 13%) was significantly lower than all other treatments, which achieved 100% survival. Those fish grown in water without manganese exhibited rapid growth, which was not affected by salinity (SGR = 4.05 ± 0.29%/day). Those fish grown at 5 ppt and 45 ppt in the presence of manganese lost weight over the 2-week trial (SGR − 0.17 ± 0.42 and − 0.44 ± 0.83%/day, respectively), whilst those at 15 ppt gained some weight (SGR 1.70 ± 0.20%/day). Manganese accumulated in the gills, liver and muscle of the fish and significant differences in blood plasma chemistry were observed. Blood plasma sodium and chloride of fish exposed to manganese were significantly elevated in hyperosmotic salinity (45 ppt) and depressed at hyposmotic salinity (5 ppt) compared with unexposed fish at the same salinity; consistent with manganese causing apoptosis or necrosis to chloride cells. We did not, however, observe any gill epithelial damage under light microscopy. Blood plasma potassium was significantly elevated at all salinities in the presence of manganese and liver potassium and glycogen reduced. These findings are consistent with manganese interfering with carbohydrate metabolism.  相似文献   

5.
The objective of this study was to investigate the influence of size on salinity tolerance in 1 year old juvenile white sturgeon. Two sizes of sturgeon (10 and 30 g) from the same spawning event (thus reducing confounding effects of genetic make-up and size) and reared in the same environment were exposed to a salinity of 0, 8, 16, 24, or 32 ppt for up to 120 h. Both 10 and 30 g fish exhibited > 93% mortality within 24 h after transfer to 24 or 32 ppt, regardless of whether they were transferred directly from freshwater (FW) or following a 48 h pre-treatment period at 16 ppt. Direct transfer from FW to 16 ppt was associated with 25 to 30% mortality, indicating that these fish have some ability to tolerate large changes in salinity for up to 5 days at this stage. Following exposure to 8 and 16 ppt, an elevation in plasma osmolarity, [Na+], and [Cl?] was observed between 24 and 72 h in both 10 and 30 g sturgeon, but plasma ions and osmolarity in surviving fish at 120 h were not significantly different between groups held at 0, 8, and 16 ppt. Despite being unprepared for either direct or stepwise transfer to salinities of 24 ppt or greater, size confers some ionoregulatory advantage, as mortality occurred more slowly and the degree of ionoregulatory perturbation was less in 30 g than 10 g fish over the course of the exposures. It is not known whether the apparent advantage of size is related to a size-dependent development of ionoregulatory capacity or due to social status which can also influence ionoregulatory capacity, but age and genetic differences did not likely contribute to this size effect.  相似文献   

6.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the growth and survival of pacu, Piaractus mesopotamicus, larvae reared in different salinities and to determine the Artemia nauplii life span in freshwater and in saline water. First feeding 5‐d‐old pacu larvae were reared in freshwater or at 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 ppt salinities. The larvae were reared in 1.5‐L aquaria at a density of 10 larvae/L with three replicates per treatment. After 10 d of rearing, significant differences (P < 0.05) were observed for growth and survival. Larval growth was higher at 2 and 4 ppt, and survival at 2 ppt was 100%. In freshwater and at 4, 6 and 8 ppt, the survival was 91.1, 93.3, 73.3, and 39.9%, respectively. At higher salinities, there was 100% mortality after 2 h (12 and 14 ppt) and 8 h (10 ppt) of exposure. The slightly saline water of at least 2 ppt increased the Artemia nauplii life span compared to the life span in freshwater. Later, in a second trial, 5‐d‐old pacu larvae were reared in freshwater and at 2 and 4 ppt salinities during the first 5 or 10 d of active feeding, and then the fish were transferred to freshwater. At the end of 15 d, larval growth was lower in freshwater (42 mg) than in treatments 2 and 4 ppt (59–63 mg). The abrupt transfer of fish from freshwater to slightly saline water and the return to freshwater did not affect the survival rates (89–97%). The larvae were able to adapt to these saline environments and handle abrupt changes in salt concentration. We concluded that salinity concentration of 2 ppt can be used for pacu larval rearing, allowing the Artemia nauplii lifetime to last longer and cause faster fish growth.  相似文献   

7.
Cobia Rachycentron canadum juveniles (119.7 mm TL, weight 8.5 g) were reared for 10 wk at three salinity levels: 5 ppt, 15 ppt. and 30 ppt. Growth and survival were determined through biweekly sampling. Blood samples obtained at termination of the study were analyzed to determine hematocrit, blood osmolality, and total protein. Results indicated that the overall growth of fish was significantly affected by salinity. Mean (± SE) total length (TL) and weight of fish reared at a salinity of 30 ppt were 201.7 ± 2.6 mm and 47.6 ± 1.9 g, respectively, followed by fish reared at 15 ppt (182.2 ± 1.7 mm, 34.1 ± 1.6 g). and 5 ppt (168.3 ± 5.8 mm TL, 28.3 ± 2.3 g). Differences in specific growth rates among treatments for the 10-wk period were also significant. No differences were detected in mean survival among fish reared at salinities of 5, 15, and 30 ppt (84, 94, and 94%, respectively). However, fish reared at salinity 5 ppt appeared to be in poor health as skin lesions, fin erosion, and discoloration were evident. Analysis of blood revealed that, while no differences existed among treatments with respect to plasma total protein, fish reared at a salinity of 5 ppt exhibited significantly reduced hematocrit (25% vs. > 30%) and plasma osmolality values (318 vs. > 353 mmolkg) relative to fish reared at higher salinities. Cobia can tolerate exposure to low salinity environments for short periods of time without mortality; however, moderate to high salinities are required for sustained growth and health of this species.  相似文献   

8.
The effect of seawater acclimation and adaptation to various salinities on the energetics of gill and kidney of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) was examined. Smolts and non-smolts previously reared in fresh water were exposed to a rapid increase in salinity to 30 ppt. Plasma osmolarity, [Na+], [Cl–], [K+] and [Mg++] increased in both groups but were significantly lower in smolts than non-smolts. Gill Na+, K+-ATPase specific activity, initially higher in smolts, increased in both groups after 18 days in seawater. Kidney Na+, K+-ATPase specific activity was not affected by salinity in either group. Gill and kidney citrate synthase specific activity was not affected by seawater exposure in smolts but decreased in non-smolts. In a second experiment, Atlantic salmon smolts reared in fresh water were acclimated to 0, 10 or 30 ppt seawater for 3 months at a temperature of 13–14°C. Gill Na+, K+-ATPase was positively correlated with salinity, displaying 2.5- and 5-fold higher specific activity at 10 and 30 ppt, respectively, than at 0 ppt. Kidney Na+, K+-ATPase specific activity was not significantly affected by environmental salinity. Citrate synthase and cytochrome c oxidase specific activities in gill were slightly (6–13%) lower at 10 ppt than at 0 and 30 ppt, whereas kidney activities were lowest at 30 ppt. Oxygen consumption of isolated gill filaments was significantly higher when incubated in isosmotic saline and at 30 ppt than at 0 ppt, but was not affected by the prior acclimation salinity. The results indicate that although high salinity induces increased gill Na+, K+-ATPase activity, it does not induce substantial increases in metabolic capacity of gill or kidney.  相似文献   

9.
Growth and survival of juvenile black bream (Acanthopagrus butcheri) were determined at salinities from 0 to 60 ppt (in 12-ppt increments) and from 0 to 12 ppt (in 4-ppt increments) in two separate trials of 6 and 4 months duration, respectively. Juvenile black bream were able to survive and grow at salinities ranging from freshwater (0 ppt) to 48 ppt. Osmotic stress was evident at 60 ppt, however, survival was not significantly affected. Fish reared at 24 ppt in trial 1 had a specific growth rate of 2.34±0.03%/day, a rate significantly higher only to those fish reared at 60 ppt (2.16±0.04%/day). Growth was greater at 24 ppt in association with the highest food intake and most efficient FCR. Although both food intake and FCR were not significantly higher than those obtained with fish reared at 12, 36 and 48 ppt, the combination of the two factors being optimised at 24 ppt lead to the greatest growth. Analysis of data from the second trial found no significant difference in the growth rate of black bream reared at salinities ranging from freshwater to 12 ppt, with SGR ranging from 1.92±0.05%/day to 2.05±0.02%/day. Variable results in freshwater between the two trials suggested that total hardness of freshwater may influence survival and/or an ontogenetic change in salinity tolerance may occur.  相似文献   

10.
Abstract.— Weight gain and metabolic rates, as determined by oxygen consumption rates, were examined in juvenile Australian red-claw crayfish Cherax quadricarinatus exposed to different temperatures (16–32 C in 2 C increments) or salinities (0–30 ppt in 5 ppt increments). Mean weight gain, molting frequency, and survival (%) were dependent on temperature and salinity. In freshwater (0 ppt), maximal weight gain and molting frequency were observed at 28 C with maximal survival observed over the temperature range of 24–30 C. Metabolic rates in freshwater were temperature dependent (mean Q10= 2.44). Maximal weight gain and molting frequency were observed at salinities of 0 and 5 ppt (28 C); however, survival was reduced at salinities ≥ 5 ppt. Metabolic rates were not salinity dependent and did not differ significantly over the salinity range from 0–20 ppt. Growth efficiencies, calculated by dividing weight gain by total metabolic energy expenditure (i.e., weight gain + metabolic rate), were highest at a temperature of 20 C (0 ppt) and at salinities of 0 and 5 ppt (28 C). These data suggest that, at higher culture temperatures, maximal weight gain of red-claw juveniles may be reduced when food resources are limited. Maximal weight gain, at optimal temperatures (28 C) with unlimited food supply, does not appear to be effected by low salinity conditions. Because of the potential commercial value of red-claw, culturists, should be aware of the relationship between environmental condition and metabolic energy requirements to ensure maximal weight gain and survival of juveniles.  相似文献   

11.
We studied the effects of salinity on survival, growth, food conversion efficiency and plasma osmolality of juvenile Siganus guttatus in two independent experiments. In the first experiment, fish were transferred from 30 ‰ salinity to freshwater, 5, 10, 20 and 30 ‰ salinities for 192 h. No fish died when transferred directly from 30 ‰ to salinities >5 ‰. However, all fish died in the freshwater treatment. In the second experiment, survival, growth, feeding rate, food conversion efficiency and plasma osmolality of fish were analyzed during 6 weeks in salinities of 5, 10, 20 and 30 ‰ (control). At the end of this experiment, the final weight and the specific growth rate of fish were significantly greater at 10 ‰ than fish in all other treatments. Feeding rate increased significantly with decreasing salinity: 10 ‰ > 20 ‰ > 30 ‰. However, the food conversion efficiency was not significantly different between fish in any treatment. Plasma osmolality of fish in 20 and 30 ‰ salinity was significantly greater than fish reared at 10 or 5 ‰. A salinity of 13.95 ‰ (411.88 mOsmol/kg) was the point of isosmolality for juvenile S. guttatus.  相似文献   

12.
Sea bass, Lates calcarifer, fingerlings were acclimated to 0. 15, and 32 ppt, and the toxic effects of nitrite exposure were assessed. The 96-hour median lethal concentrations (96-hour LC50 for nitrite were estimated to be 14.5 mg/L at 0 ppt, 105 mg/L at 15 ppt and 93 mg/L at 32 ppt salinity. Chronic exposure to a nitrite concentration equivalent to 10% of the respective 96 hour LC50 resulted in marked growth reduction: growth being reduced in the order of 0 ppt > 32 ppt > 15 ppt. In nitrite-free water, growth rate for fish raised at a salinity of 15 ppt was higher compared to fish raised at salinities of 0 ppt and 32 ppt, a phenomenon which probably reflected the advantage of a reduction in osmoregulatory work in an iso-osmotic environment.  相似文献   

13.
Abstract.— Juvenile white bass Morone chrysops (age 158 d, 110.4 mm total length) were reared at salinity levels of 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20 parts per thousand (ppt). Fish (10/tank) were stocked in 64-L tanks with four replicates/treatment ( N = 40heatment) and fed a pelleted feed daily. Fish were sampled semimonthly for 70 d. Fish reared at salinities of 12 ppt and below were significantly ( P ≤ 0.05) larger (mean = 151.5 mm total length; range 146.8–155.7 mm) than fish reared at salinities of 16 and 20 ppt (mean 133.7 mm total length; range 131.5–135.8 mm) after 70 d. Survival was also higher ( P ≤ 0.05) among fish reared at salinities of 12 ppt or lower (mean 85.6%; range 77.5%–92.5%) compared to those reared at the two highest salinities (42.5% survival at 16 ppt; 5.0% survival at 20 ppt). Thus, although typically found in freshwater habitats, white bass can survive and grow in brackish water.  相似文献   

14.
The ability of marine goliath grouper to survive in waters of low salinity was investigated by collecting juvenile individuals from the wild in full-strength seawater and either transferring them directly to fresh water or acclimating them over a 96-h period to fresh water. Juvenile goliath grouper (n = 49; mean 23.4 cm SL; SD 4.1; mean 339.1 g; SD 89.3) tolerated transfers from seawater (30 ppt) to freshwater (<1 ppt), and survived thereafter for a period of 28 d in strictly fresh water, with no observed adverse effects. However, the salinity tolerance was influenced by rate of exposure, as no deaths were observed when the fish were given a gradual decrease in salinity, but 60% of the individuals died when transferred abruptly from seawater into fresh water.  相似文献   

15.
The effect of environmental salinity on hematological parameters of great sturgeon Huso huso juveniles was studied. Five-month-old juveniles (mean body weight 28.3 ± 2.1 g) were subjected to 0, 3, 6, 9, and 12 ppt salinities. The hematological parameters were assessed after a period of 20 days rearing at these salinities. After transfer from fresh water to brackish water, red blood cells, hematocrit, haemoglobin and mean corpuscular haemoglobin decreased, but mean corpuscular volume increased. Mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration, white blood cells, monocyte counts, and eosinophil counts showed no significant variations with increase in environmental salinity. An increase was found in lymphocyte counts according to the increase of salinity from 0 to 12 ppt, while the fresh water control group maintained basal levels. Decrease in neutrophil counts was observed in great sturgeon with increase in environmental salinity. These data show significant effect of salinity on the blood parameters of great sturgeon.  相似文献   

16.
In order to determine the salinity effect on otolith strontium (Sr):calcium (Ca) ratios, the Sr and Ca contents of otoliths of Sakhalin taimen, Hucho perryi, reared for 60 days in four salinities (freshwater, one-third seawater, two-thirds seawater, and full seawater) were examined. The Ca and Sr contents and the resultant Sr:Ca ratios in the rearing water increased linearly with salinity. Otolith Sr:Ca ratios were also found to be positively correlated with salinity. However, the Sr:Ca did not correspond to temperature fluctuations during the experiment. These results indicate that Sr:Ca ratios in otoliths can be used to reconstruct the migratory history of the fish by differentiating when the fish migrated between freshwater and seawater.  相似文献   

17.
The influence of three different environmental salinities (seawater, SW: 38 ppt salinity; brackish water, BW: 12 ppt; and low salinity water, LSW: 6 ppt salinity) on the growth, osmoregulation and metabolism of young gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) was studied over a period of 100 days. 480 inmature fish (20 g mean body weight) were randomly divided into six tanks of 2500 l (80 fish per tank) and maintained under three different salinities (38 ppt, 12 ppt and 6 ppt) in an open system. Every three weeks, 10 fish from each tank were anesthetized, weighed and lenghed. At the end of experiment, 10 fish from each tank were anesthetized, weighed and sampled for plasma, brain, gill and liver. Gill Na+, K+-ATPase activity, plasma osmolality, ions (sodium and chloride), glucose, lactate, protein and triglyceride, and hepatosomatic index were examined. In addition, levels of glycogen, lactate, ATP and activities of potential regulatory enzymes (hexokinase, pyruvate kinase, glycogen phosphorylase, and glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase) were assesed in liver, brain, and gill. BW-acclimated fish showed a better growth with respect to SW- or LSW-acclimated fish (12 > 38 > 6 ppt). The same relationship was observed for weight gain and specific growth rate. Osmoregulatory parameters in plasma (osmolality, Na+ and Cl− levels) were similar in SW- and BW-acclimated fish but significantly higher than those of LSW-acclimated fish. Gill Na+, K+-ATPase activity showed lower values in intermediate salinity (6 > 38 > 12 ppt). No changes were observed in metabolic parameters analyzed in plasma, whereas only minor changes were observed in metabolic parameters of liver, gills and brain that could be correlated with the higher growth rates observed in fish acclimated to BW, which do not allow us to attribute the best growth rate observed at 12 ppt to lower metabolic rates in that salinity.  相似文献   

18.
The tolerance of lumpfish to freshwater treatment and efficacy over a range of salinities and treatment durations is examined. No structural and cellular changes were noted in organs, including gills and gut, sampled 48 hr posttreatment because of freshwater baths for periods of up to 5 hr exposure at 0 ppt or continuous treatment in 15 ppt water for 10 days. Behavioral indicators such as activity and ventilation frequency were also not significantly different between treatments, with the exception of the first trial where lumpfish were inactive during treatment in 0 ppt water compared with active fish in 32 ppt seawater. Amoeba numbers declined from an initial 21.5/gill arch to 0.33 after 3 hr in freshwater and to zero after 5 hr, and to five amoebas/gill arch after 3 hr in brackish water treatment (15 ppt). When fish were treated continuously for 15 days in 15 ppt water, amoeba numbers declined from 231 to 3.7/gill arch after 3 days and a mean of 1.75 amoebae after 10 days. In the last trial, no amoebas were present per gill arch after 3 hr treatment in 0 and 3 ppt bath.  相似文献   

19.
The purpose of this study was to analyse the influence of water salinity on the incubation of eggs and growth of the larvae of sichel Pelecus cultratus (L.) under controlled conditions. The following water salinity was considered: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 0 ppt for the control. The eggs incubation time depended on the water salinity, lasting from 56.3°D [9 ppt] to 107.7°D [0 ppt]. The higher water salinity, shorter the incubation time. The highest survivability of larvae was obtained in water of the salinity equal 3 ppt and in freshwater, where respectively 87% and 84% of the larvae survived. No hatched larvae were obtained in water of the salinity of 12 and 15 ppt, as all embryos died during the experiment. Larvae were reared up for 21 days. The final body weight, depending on the water salinity, reached from 43.5 mg [9 ppt] to 74.6 mg [3 ppt], at the respective body lengths of 19.3 mm and 23.2 mm. The highest body gains and lengths of larvae were observed in water of the salinity of 3 ppt. The lowest survivability of sichel larvae occurred in water of the salinity 9 ppt, where it was only 53.2%. The survivability of larvae in freshwater and water of the salinity of 3 ppt was quite similar: 96.2% and 95.6% respectively. Water salinity degree of 12 and 15 ppt appeared to be lethal for both embryos and larvae of the sichel.  相似文献   

20.
Growth of juvenile Florida red tilapin (1.57 g average weight) spawned and sex-reversed (monosex male) at salinities of 4 ppt and 18 ppt was compared at rearing salinities of 18 ppt and 36 ppt in 200 L aquaria under controlled photoperiod (12 L:12 D) and temperature (28 C). Growth was significantly higher for progeny spawned at 18 ppt than those spawned at 4 ppt under both rearing salinities with no difference observed between 18 ppt and 36 ppt.
In another experiment, growth of juvenile progeny (0.98 g average weight) spawned and sex-reversed at salinities of 2 ppt and 18 ppt was compared in 24 m3 outdoor pools at 36 ppt. When water temperatures exceeded 27 C, growth and survival were not significantly different between these groups. However, when temperatures fell below 25 C, growth and survival were significantly higher among progeny spawned at 18 ppt.
The results showed that progeny spawned and reared through early ontqenetic development in brackishwater are better adapted for growth in brackish and seawater and suggested that these fish may have higher resistance to cold-stress in seawater than progeny spawned in freshwater.  相似文献   

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