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1.
Six mature stock-type geldings with maintenance only requirements were used in a randomized cross-over design to determine the effect of sward height on pasture plant nonstructural carbohydrate (NSC) concentrations and blood glucose and insulin concentrations. Horses were randomly assigned to one of two tall fescue (Lolium arundinaceum Schreb cv Max-Q, Pennington Seed, Madison, GA) grazing cells (0.37 ha) having two different sward heights for a period of 7 days: (1) short (approximately 15 cm; n = 3) or tall (between 30 and 40 cm; n = 3). After the first 7-day period, treatment groups were reversed by moving horses to ungrazed cells having similar characteristics to those used in the first 7 days, so that all horses receive all treatments resulting in six observations per treatment. Both short and tall grazing cells were mowed to a height of approximately 15 cm 32 days before the experiment starts. The short grazing cells were removed to approximately 15 cm at 11 days before the start of the first 7-day period and again 1 day before the start of each 7-day period. All horses had access to pasture for 10 h/d beginning at 8 AM and ending at 6 PM. Although not at pasture, all horses were individually housed in 3.7 × 12.2 m partially covered pens containing automatic water troughs and a crushed stone surface. Herbage mass (kg DM/ha) was determined by use of a falling plate meter for each pasture to ensure that both groups of horses had adequate dry matter to provide grazing for at least 7 days. On day 7 of each period, jugular venous blood samples were collected from each horse before being turned out to pasture, and then at 2, 4, 6, and 8 hours after turn-out. Pasture samples were also collected from each grazing cell at the same time blood samples were taken. Serum and plasma from blood samples were harvested and analyzed for insulin and glucose concentrations, respectively. Pasture samples were analyzed for water soluble carbohydrate (WSC), ethanol soluble carbohydrate (ESC), and starch. The sum of WSC and starch were used as an estimate of NSC. Area under the curve (AUC) and peak concentration were calculated for both plasma glucose (PPG) and serum insulin (PSI) concentration and were analyzed using analysis of variance for randomized cross-over designs. Pasture WSC, ESC, starch, and NSC concentrations were analyzed using analysis of variance for randomized complete block design. A P value of < .05 was considered significant. Mean pasture plant NSC, WSC, and ESC concentrations were lower (P < .001) in short as compared with tall. Pasture plant starch concentration was not different between treatments. Mean pregrazing plasma glucose concentrations, PPG concentrations, and plasma glucose AUC were not affected by treatment. Mean pregrazing serum insulin concentrations were not affected by treatment. Mean PSI and insulin AUC were greater (P < .01) when horses grazed tall, as compared with short. In conclusion, decreasing the sward height by mowing pasture decreased NSC, WSC, and ESC concentrations and subsequently decreased the postprandial insulin response of horses grazing the pasture. These findings may be important in developing strategies aimed at preventing insulin resistance in grazing horses. 相似文献
2.
The incidence of trypanosome infection was monitored in dairy cattle during a 6-month trial in Busia and Teso districts, western
Kenya, to assess the efficacy of insecticide-treated netting for protection against tsetse flies. Frequently, the fragile
netting did not last longer than 2 months because of destruction by strong wind or animal movements. Also, many farmers let
their cattle graze freely outside the units during the day, despite technical advice, resulting in exposure of the free-ranging
animals to habitats suitable for tsetse and thereby an increased risk of trypanosome infections. The trial groups thus comprised
34 animals from 11 dairy units that were continuously protected, and 153 animals from 46 dairy units that were partially protected.
The control group consisted of 162 animals in 42 unprotected units. The phase-contrast buffy-coat technique was used for parasitological
monitoring. The mean hazard rate for trypanosomes was significantly lower in protected cows, with a value of 0.007 as opposed
to 0.02 for the control animals. Mean packed cell volumes (PCV) were significantly higher in protected cattle (29.7%) than
in unprotected ones (27.6%). Farmers with protected animals also reported fewer nuisance flies and mosquitoes in their compounds. 相似文献
3.
Eva Spörndly Ingemar Olsson Erling Burstedt 《Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section A - Animal Sciences》2013,63(3):184-192
Live weight gain of steers grazing at three different target sward heights, Low (3-6 cm), Medium (6-10 cm) and High (>10 cm), together with carcass fat deposition, were studied during two grazing seasons. Sward height was measured with a sward stick. The grassland consisted of seminatural grazing areas mixed with previously cultivated areas. Animals grazed continuously with small adjustments in animal numbers (year 1) or pasture area (year 2) to maintain sward height within the target for each treatment. The recorded average sward heights were 4.7, 6.8 and 11.1 cm for pastures on treatments Low, Medium and High, respectively. The animals weighed approximately 440 kg at the start of the grazing season and went directly from pasture to slaughter at the end of the experiment. No differences between years were found and data from both years were thus pooled, giving a total of 50 steers of the Swedish Red and White breed in the data set. Over the whole grazing season, the average daily live weight gain of animals on treatment Low (0.43 kg day 相似文献
4.
Gustav Rosenberger 《Veterinary parasitology》1977,3(3):239-244
Since derris preparations applied in compliance with a government directive of 1933 failed to control warble flies, a new law to enforce treatment with systemic insecticides was passed in the Federal Republic of Germany in 1967. Under this law, the owners must treat their cattle with systemics before the grazing season starts if hypodermal grubs are found on even a single animal in the herd. The law authorizes state governments to decree that all cattle in a state or in certain regions be treated at a certain time. All states with pasture areas have exercised this right.The grazing season runs from May to October and the cattle are stabled thereafter. The treatment period is mandated after the grazing season, at the beginning of December. If warbles are observed before the cattle are turned out to pasture, a second treatment of all the cattle on the farm is mandatory. Through this procedure, warble infestation has been greatly reduced. In some areas, the infestation has been eradicated completely and is not seen either on live animals or on the hides of slaughtered cattle. The level of infestation at which it is safe to abandon autumn treatment without risking a resurgence of the infestation has not been determined. 相似文献
5.
《Journal of Equine Veterinary Science》1996,16(10):421-427
This study was designed to determine how the behaviors of horses on a fenced-in pasture in the northeastern United States may contribute to infection by Strongylus vulgaris. The infective stages of strongylid parasites of horses develop in the feces, and they must be ingested for infection to occur. Domestic horses are thought to be coprophobic, and to avoid grazing in areas contaminated with their feces. 1,2 In this study, nine Standardbred colts were observed on two pastures three times a week during two observation periods (January, 1995 and February through mid-March, 1995). Nine adult Standardbred mares and geldings were also observed on the same pastures during one observation period from April through mid-May, 1995. On each pasture, the roughs (areas of group defecation associated with long grass), lawns (short-cropped grass) and bare areas (where hay was fed in racks), were mapped. Grazing occurred equally on roughs, lawns, and bare patches of the pasture in two of the three observation periods (January and April/May). In the February/mid-March observation period, most of the grazing activity occurred on the bare areas, where hay was provided, but there was still grazing in the roughs. Defecation and urination activities occurred at similar frequencies in all areas of the pastures during all observation periods. These data suggest that horses kept at high grazing intensities will graze near feces in the roughs, and will defecate in the “grazing” areas. It was also determined that the infective larvae of S. vulgaris are attracted to horse feces, but show no responses to grass, in laboratory chemical migration assays. These data suggest that the parasites may not migrate from the feces to the grass as part of their transmission strategy as previously reported. Thus, parasite infection may be occurring when horses graze in the roughs or near feces in the lawns and bare areas, and pasture management strategies for controlling these parasites may be most effective if focused on reducing the infective larvae present on the pasture. 相似文献
6.
J D Dunsmore 《Equine veterinary journal》1985,17(3):191-195
An attempt was made to control or eliminate Strongylus vulgaris from a closed group of three horses at pasture near Perth, Western Australia, by dosing with ivermectin on four occasions during the time of year when it was believed that environmental conditions would eliminate all the non-parasitic stages of that species. At necropsy, five months after the last dose of anthelmintic and after continually grazing the same pastures, no S vulgaris or arterial lesions were found in those horses and S edentatus, Draschia megastoma and Habronema species were also almost completely eliminated. 相似文献
7.
Deterministic models1 developed for the jumping horseindicated the important factors involved when jumping an obstacle2. SVHS video recordings were obtained of 31 untrained horses (age: 3–5 years, height: 164.7±4.5 cm) jumping loose over a fence 1 m high by 0.5 m wide. The horses were designated to either a good group or a poor group based on a qualitative evaluation; good horses (n=18) cleared the fence with ease, and poor horses (n=13) consistently hit the fence. Video sequences were digitized to provide kinematic data on the horses' center of gravity (CG) and carpal and tarsal angles. Twenty kinematic variables were examined from the approach to the landing. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) revealed significant between-group differences for the horizontal velocity of the last approach stride (Good: 5.77±0.80 m.s−1; Poor: 6.42±0.95 m.s−1; p=0.046). Significant differences were found in the relative carpal angles at take off (Leading limb: Good: 1.02±0.19 rad, Poor: 1.25±0.28 rad; p=0.010; Trailing limb: Good: 0.92±0.21 rad, Poor: 1.06±0.15 rad; p=0.046). The height of the CG over the center of the fence was also a significant variable that differed between the groups (Good: 1.83±0.08 m; Poor: 1.71±0.13 m; p=0.002). Finally the horizontal velocity of the landing was significant (Good: 5.26±0.92 m.s−1; Poor: 6.27±0.84 m.s−1; p=0.004) along with the angle of the CG to the ground at landing (Good: −0.45±0.08 rad; Poor: −0.38±0.07 rad). The velocity and CG variables which distinguished good and poor horses are likely to be strongly influenced by a rider; therefore, it is unlikely that these data alone could be used to predict elite jumping horses. The carpal angle data, however, may indicate a certain natural tendency by the young horses in the good group to keep their legs clear of the fence. 相似文献
8.
The feeding value of fresh pasture grazed in situ is determined by animal performance or productivity and could be relatively easily established for growing and lactating horses. Despite this, there is a lack of published information on the relative feeding value of different pastures and forages grazed by horses in New Zealand and the world. In addition, for adult breeding or non-breeding and young or adult sport or performance horses, the definition of feeding value and its determination remain problematic. Limited information suggests that the feeding value of perennial ryegrass-based pasture in New Zealand for young growing horses is high, and growth rates for Thoroughbred horses fed solely on pasture in New Zealand are similar to those reported from the Northern Hemisphere where grain-based supplements are fed in addition to pasture or other forages. Attempts to assess the ability of fresh pastures to meet the nutrient requirements of horses are hampered by problems associated with determination of feed intake by grazing horses and lack of knowledge of the digestibility and utilisation of digested nutrients, including the relative bioavailability of macro- and micro-minerals in pasture. A further challenge for future research is to determine the effect of herbage allowance and grazing behaviour, including pasture species preferences, on voluntary feed intake by grazing horses. Grazing pasture has benefits for equine health and well-being including reduced risk of some nutrition-related disorders and reduced prevalence of stereotypic behaviour. Pastured horses have greater freedom for expression of natural behaviours including social interaction and exercise. However, grazing pasture is also associated with animal health problems, particularly parasitism and diseases related to pasture-associated toxins. 相似文献
9.
The feeding value of fresh pasture grazed in situ is determined by animal performance or productivity and could be relatively easily established for growing and lactating horses. Despite this, there is a lack of published information on the relative feeding value of different pastures and forages grazed by horses in New Zealand and the world. In addition, for adult breeding or non-breeding and young or adult sport or performance horses, the definition of feeding value and its determination remain problematic. Limited information suggests that the feeding value of perennial ryegrass-based pasture in New Zealand for young growing horses is high, and growth rates for Thoroughbred horses fed solely on pasture in New Zealand are similar to those reported from the Northern Hemisphere where grain-based supplements are fed in addition to pasture or other forages. Attempts to assess the ability of fresh pastures to meet the nutrient requirements of horses are hampered by problems associated with determination of feed intake by grazing horses and lack of knowledge of the digestibility and utilisation of digested nutrients, including the relative bio availability of macro- and micro-minerals in pasture. A further challenge for future research is to determine the effect of herbage allowance and grazing behaviour, including pasture species preferences, on voluntary feed intake by grazing horses. Grazing pasture has benefits for equine health and well-being including reduced risk of some nutrition-related disorders and reduced prevalence of stereotypic behaviour. Pastured horses have greater freedom for expression of natural behaviours including social interaction and exercise. However, grazing pasture is also associated with animal health problems, particularly parasitism and diseases related to pasture-associated toxins. 相似文献
10.
McGorum BC Mayhew IG Amory H Deprez P Gillies L Green K Mair TS Nollet H Wijnberg ID Hahn CN 《Equine veterinary journal》2006,38(1):47-51
REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Equine motor neuron disease (EMND) was diagnosed in 3 horses maintained on lush, grass-based pasture. This contrasted with North American studies which identified limited or no access to green herbage as an important risk factor for EMND. HYPOTHESIS: Grazing horses that have an apparently adequate intake of pasture herbage to meet normal equine vitamin E requirements can develop EMND. METHODS: Owners of 32 European horses diagnosed with EMND completed a questionnaire regarding intrinsic, managemental, nutritional and environmental factors that could potentially be risk factors for EMND, and also regarding clinical signs, treatments and case outcome. Plasma/serum vitamin E data for these horses were supplied by the veterinarians. No control population was studied. RESULTS: Thirteen of 32 horses (termed the 'grazing' group) had part- or full-time access to grass-based pasture at the onset of EMND (median duration at pasture 12 h/day, range 3-24 h). Five of these horses were at pasture for at least 235 h/day at the onset of EMND, 2 of which were at pasture for at least 23.5 h/day throughout the year. Despite grazing, all these horses had a low vitamin E status. The remaining 19 horses resembled those cases reported from North America, in that they had no or limited access to pasture. CONCLUSIONS AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: A diagnosis of EMND should not be discounted on the basis that a horse has access, even full-time, to lush grass-based pasture. Inadequate vitamin E intake was probably not the sole cause of either the EMND or the low vitamin E status in the grazing horses; the latter was probably the result of abnormal bioavailability or excessive utilisation of vitamin E. 相似文献
11.
放牧对典型草原土壤有机碳及全氮的影响 总被引：20，自引：6，他引：14
以内蒙古锡林河流域羊草Leymus chinensis典型草原作为研究对象,研究不同放牧强度及放牧制度下,土壤有机碳、全氮的含量差异,结果表明:1)土壤有机碳含量大体表现为常年放牧地高于混合放牧地,且差异明显。常年放牧地表现为轻牧重牧中牧围封未放牧地,混合放牧地除"轻牧+割草"与"中牧+割草"在20~30 cm土层深度表现出显著差异以外,各个放牧强度间差异均不显著。土壤有机碳含量随着土层深度的增加而降低。2)土壤全氮在不同的放牧梯度间及不同土层深度间的变化趋势与土壤有机碳大体相同,趋势表现为轻牧重牧中牧围封未放牧地,而混合放牧地的变化趋势比较复杂,相比较常年放牧地,混合放牧地的全氮含量要低。全氮含量随着土层深度的增加而降低。研究结果表明重牧下有机碳含量要高于中牧,这可能是由于随着放牧强度的增加,草原植被C4植物增多而引起的。 相似文献
12.
Esterhuizen J Van den Bossche P 《The Onderstepoort journal of veterinary research》2006,73(4):319-321
Studies were conducted in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, to evaluate the effectiveness of netting in preventing Glossina austeni and Glossina brevipalpis from entering H-traps. Results indicated that a net of 1.5 m in height was effective in reducing catches of G. austeni by 59.6% and catches of G. brevipalpis by 80.9%. Increasing the net height to 2.5 m, reduced catches by 96.6% and 100% for G. brevipalpis and G. austeni, respectively. Nets of this height also reduced catches of horse flies by 55%. Although the potential use of protective netting has limitations in tsetse-infested areas of rural northern KwaZulu-Natal, it is a low-technology method that can be used as part of integrated disease management strategies. 相似文献
13.
The efficacy of using a bolus containing morantel in a sustained-release preparation for controlling naturally acquired gastrointestinal parasitic infections in weaned calves and yearling cattle was investigated during the 1982 grazing season at selected sites in the United States and Canada. According to a common trial design under various climatic and management conditions, 10 field trials were conducted with the bolus. At the time of spring turnout, a bolus was administered to each calf or yearling in the treated group. Then, treated and control cattle grazed separate but equal areas of divided pasture(s). The epidemiologic pattern of parasitic gastroenteritis in control animals and the effect of treatment on this pattern was determined in each trial. Safety and practicality of use of the bolus also were established. When compared with untreated cattle (control), those given the bolus deposited significantly (P less than 0.05) fewer worm eggs (89% reduction) during the first 90 days of the grazing season, as well as significantly fewer (P less than 0.05) worm eggs (84% reduction) during the entire grazing season. Consequently, during the second half of the grazing season, larval populations on treated pastures remained significantly (P less than 0.05) lower (66% reduction), compared with numbers of larvae found on control pastures. For pastures grazed by treated and control cattle at trial initiation, mean worm counts recovered from tracer calves were equal, indicating comparable pasture contamination at the beginning of the grazing season.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS) 相似文献
14.
15.
Daniels MJ Ball N Hutchings MR Greig A 《Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)》2001,161(3):306-313
Transmission of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis, the organism responsible for paratuberculosis (or Johne's disease) in ruminants, occurs through the faecal-oral route. As M. a. paratuberculosis has been isolated from rabbit faeces, cattle grazing rabbit faecal contaminated pasture may thus be at risk.A herd of 57 beef cattle was monitored on a farm in Perthshire, throughout the 1999 'grazing year', to investigate whether the cattle avoided rabbit faecal contaminated pasture and thus the potential for disease transmission. Grazing was measured every two days over eight rotations by sward heights on 40 marked treatment plots (0.5 m x 0.5 m) to which 0, 10, 50 and 250 rabbit faecal pellets were added. Cattle were also monitored by an active transponder system which enabled individual animals contacting two plots per field rotation (one control and one contaminated) to be recorded. During the monitored grazing year, grazing pressure was low with a net mean sward offtake of 18% of sward height per rotation. There were no significant differences between rabbit faecal treatments (0, 10, 50 and 250 pellets) with respect to the height or proportion of sward removed, or between the numbers of contacts made by cattle on contaminated and uncontaminated plots. Over 90% of all the cattle contacted contaminated plots, indicating that the potential for disease transmission was widespread among the herd.To our knowledge, this is the first reported instance of a lack of avoidance by grazing cattle towards swards contaminated with faeces, and implies that the potential for transmission of paratuberculosis from rabbit contaminated pasture is high. 相似文献
16.
通过4个放牧强度（轻牧、适牧、重牧和过牧,牧后草层高度分别为7.5、5.5、3.5和<2.0 cm）的轮牧试验,对黑麦草(Lolium perenne)、白三叶(Trifolium repens)混播草地土壤化学特性;黑麦草分蘖和白三叶匍匐茎、叶片数及其茎叶构成,牧草高度、生物量与植被构成进行系统研究。结果表明,土壤速效养分含量对放牧强度响应较大,稳定性较弱。随放牧强度的增加,黑麦草分蘖密度和叶片生物量显著增加,黑麦草分蘖质量和白三叶匍匐茎密度及牧草高度和生物量显著下降;黑麦草叶片数,白三叶叶片数、茎叶比和匍匐茎质量在放牧强度间无显著变化。放牧强度在降低黑麦草和白三叶生长特性整齐度的同时,增加其可塑性生长;黑麦草对放牧强度的响应比白三叶敏感,但白三叶的可塑性生长比黑麦草的高。鸭茅（Dactylis glomerata）和非播种植物种的生长特性在放牧强度内变异系数较大。综合分析认为,放牧对草地植被的作用体现于植物个体、种群和群落3个水平,播种的低组分禾草（鸭茅）和非播种禾草是混播草地植被构成变化的关键种。 相似文献
17.
Epidemiological approach to the control of horse strongyles 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
An investigation of the spring rise in strongyle egg output of grazing horses on two commercial horse farms in northern USA in 1981 and 1982 revealed two distinct spring and summer rises in faecal egg counts, with peaks in May and August/September. There was a marked rise in the concentration of infective larvae on pasture two to four weeks after the peaks in egg output, so that grazing horses were at serious risk from June onwards and pasture larval counts on one farm did not fall to low levels until June of the following year. The spring and summer rises in faecal egg counts appeared to be seasonal in nature, to be derived largely from worms developing from previously ingested larvae, rather than from newly ingested larvae, and to be unrelated to the date of foaling. An epidemiological approach to strongyle control based on prophylactic treatments in the spring successfully eliminated the spring rise in egg output but was inadequate to control the summer rise or subsequent escalation of pasture infectivity in September. It was, nevertheless, superior to a conventional treatment programme at eight week intervals, using the same drug, pyrantel pamoate. Prophylactic spring/summer treatments proved to be much more effective. Both pyrantel pamoate at four week intervals and ivermectin at eight week intervals kept faecal egg counts at low levels during spring and summer. As few as two ivermectin treatments (11 May, 6 July) resulted in a sixfold reduction in pasture larval counts on 9 November and 3 January for the treated group (8872, 8416 stage three larvae [L3]/kg) compared to the control group (52,824, 50,984 L3/kg).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS) 相似文献
18.
Comparative long-term efficacy of ivermectin and moxidectin over winter in Canadian horses treated at removal from pastures for winter housing 
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下载免费PDF全文 Johanne Elsener Alain Villeneuve 《The Canadian veterinary journal. La revue veterinaire canadienne》2009,50(5):486-490
The impact of a late fall treatment on the spring rise of fecal egg counts was evaluated in a controlled study with Canadian horses treated with 2 different dewormers immediately after removal from pasture for winter housing. The horses were stabled until the end of the trial period. Seventeen weanlings, 20 yearlings, and 15 2-year-old horses located in Ontario, which were presumed to be naturally infected with cyathostomins after pasture grazing, were randomly allocated to either a group treated with 0.4 mg/kg of moxidectin and 2.5 mg/kg of praziquantel or a group treated with 0.2 mg/kg of ivermectin and 1.5 mg/kg of praziquantel. Three weeks after treatment, all strongyle fecal egg counts were reduced to zero for both treatment groups. However, at 5 months post-treatment, mean geometric fecal egg counts were statistically higher for the yearlings and 2-year-old horses treated with ivermectin than for the yearlings and 2-year-old horses treated with moxidectin (P < 0.0001). 相似文献
19.
We assessed whether rolling damage by grazing horses could be reduced by constructing areas assigned for rolling. A group of horses were enclosed in a paddock with and without rolling areas made of dry soil, sand, and straw. Their behavior was recorded for 1 week in the paddock without any treatment (control paddock). Then the horses were moved to another paddock with the rolling areas (rolling paddock). After a 3-week familiarization period, horses were observed for 1 week. In the rolling paddock, the frequency and time spent rolling were significantly greater in rolling areas than in nonrolling areas. Horses significantly preferred the soil rolling area than sand and straw (P < .05). Although rolling was considered the most relevant body care behavioral element, the effects of the substrate in rolling areas on other body care behavioral activities, such as mutual and self-grooming, also were investigated. The frequency and duration of mutual grooming and the duration of self-grooming decreased significantly in the rolling paddock compared with the control paddock (P < .05). Hence, offering a rolling area encourages horses to roll in these areas and keeps the pasture in good condition; therefore, grazing time can be increased, with less reliance on supplementary feed. 相似文献
20.
Fences are utilised throughout the world to restrict the movements of wildlife, protecting them from threats and reducing human–wildlife conflict. In South Africa the number of privately-owned fenced game reserves has greatly increased in recent years, but little is known about how fencing affects the distribution and movements of target and non-target mammals. We surveyed 2 m either side of the complete fence line of a recently established commercial game reserve in South Africa, identifying signs of animal presence (spoor, scat, foraging or other field signs) while also recording damage (holes) to the fence. Every 250 m we carried out 100 m perpendicular transects either side of the fence, recording vegetation cover and height at 10 m intervals along the transect. We found that livestock (largely cattle) were excluded from the reserve. However, 12% of records of large animal species were recorded outside of the fence line. These species had been introduced to the reserve, strongly suggesting that they had crossed the boundary into the surrounding farmland. Sixteen naturally present wild species were found on both sides of the fence, but we found more evidence of their presence inside the reserve. Observational evidence suggests that they were regularly crossing the boundary, particularly where the fence was damaged, with hole size affecting species recorded. We also found evidence that the construction of the fence had led to a difference in vegetation structure with plant richness and percentage of non-woody plant cover significantly higher inside the fence. While fencing was highly effective at preventing movement of livestock, introduced and wild animals were able to cross the boundary, via holes in the fence. This work shows that the efficacy of the most common approach to preventing animal movement around protected areas depends on the species being considered and fence condition. 相似文献