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1.
Two zoocides (Danitol 10 EC [10% fenpropathrin, insecticide], Nissorun 10 WP [(10% hexythiazox, acaricide]) were examined in the laboratory regarding their acute detrimental (side-) effects of field rates on adult common green lacewings (GLW).The toxicity of both preparations was determined by measuring the surface contact effects (dried spray on leaves ofPhiladelphus coronarius). 5 concentration were tested, with 20 adults exposed per concentration. Data were analyzed by probit analysis and one way ANOVA.According to different categories of evaluation Nissorun 10 WP seems to be safe for GLW adults but Danitol 10 EC was slightly harmful for them, which indicates further semi-field or field test to measure its real effect under field conditions.With 4 tables  相似文献   

2.
As very little is known about the impact of cold pre-treatments on insecticidal toxicity to the surviving stored-product insects, we examined the effects of cooling (?5 °C) on the toxicity of five contact insecticides to Sitophilus granarius adults from three populations (laboratory, field and selected). We determined: (a) weevil lethal time after exposure to ?5 °C, (b) the effects of two cold pre-treatments (LT20 and LT50—lethal time for 20 and 50 % of exposed adults) on 24 and 72 h recovery rates of laboratory adults after exposure to five insecticides and (c) deltamethrin, dichlorvos and malathion toxicity to two weevil populations with altered insecticide susceptibility after exposure to the LT20 and LT50 pre-treatments. The tested S. granarius populations showed no significant differences in their susceptibility to cooling. All insecticides except dichlorvos were more toxic to the laboratory weevils after 24 h than after 72 h recovery from the LT20 pre-treatment. Dichlorvos and deltamethrin were more toxic to the other two populations after 72 h of recovery. Comparing the effects of cold pre-treatment and non-treatment on the laboratory strain, no significant increase in the toxicity of insecticides was detected, while only deltamethrin was significantly more toxic to the field and selected populations recovering for 24 h (12.1 and 11.0 times, respectively) and 72 h (6.9 and 36.6 times) from the LT20 pre-treatment. In conclusion, only the shorter of the two cold pre-treatments was found effective in terms of increasing the insecticidal toxicity, especially against the populations with altered susceptibility to insecticides.  相似文献   

3.
The effect of the duration of copulation on egg production and sex ratio was studied in two phytoseiid mites,Cydnodromella negevi (Swirski and Amitai) andTyphlodromus athiasae Porath and Swirski in the laboratory. In both species, the fecundity of females, oviposition period and the proportion of females in the progeny increased with the duration of copulation. It was shown that in the two physoseiid mites several copulations are required to deposit the maximum number of eggs.  相似文献   

4.
The effects of fungicides containing mancozeb or copper oxychloride, as principal active ingredients, on phytoseiid mites were investigated in a vineyard comprising four varieties (Prosecco, Cabernet Franc, Pinot gris and Merlot) and located in north-eastern Italy. Phytoseiid colonisation was different among the four varieties: Amblyseius andersoni and Kampimodromus aberrans were dominant on Pinot gris and Merlot, respectively, while Typhlodromus pyri was more common than the above species on Prosecco and Cabernet Franc. Applications of mancozeb fungicides significantly affected K. aberrans populations. Concerning T. pyri, a significant effect was observed on Cabernet but not on Prosecco. The effects of mancozeb fungicides on A. andersoni were less clear. The response of phytoseiids to fungicides containing mancozeb appeared to be mediated by the variety. Therefore, the choice of one or two varieties as a standard reference for field tests is recommended. These results also suggest that the side effects of fungicides on predatory mites should be studied on different phytoseiid species and, possibly, on susceptible and resistant strains in order to gain useful insights.  相似文献   

5.
Kaolin particle films and copper-based products can be considered as possible alternatives to traditional agrochemicals used for controlling the dominant pest of olive grove areas of the Mediterranean Basin, the olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae (Rossi) (Dip. Tephritidae), to which this pest has already evolved resistance. Psyttalia concolor (Szèpligeti) (Hym. Braconidae) is a koinobiont larval–pupal endoparasitoid of many Tephritidae of economic importance. It has been routinely used in the Mediterranean Basin for augmentative releases against B. oleae. Detailed knowledge of lethal and sublethal effects of these agrochemicals on non target arthropods is required for effective integrated pest management programmes. The aims of this study were to evaluate direct mortality caused by kaolin and copper salts on the parasitoid and the sublethal effects on emergence of adults from treated pupae and on beneficial capacity of females through four different experiments, three at laboratory level and one in semi-field conditions. Dual choice and no-choice experiments in the case of kaolin were also performed to test kaolin oviposition repellence. The results indicated that the tested agrochemicals were not harmful to the parasitoid. No lethal toxicity or effects on beneficial capacity were recorded. The behavioural experiments, however, showed that when females could choose between parasitising through a kaolin-treated surface and a water-treated one, there was a slight reduction in the percentage of parasitised hosts for kaolin. No differences were detected when females were not given a choice.  相似文献   

6.
The existing standardised test systems for assessing the toxicity of crop protection products to the non-target arthropods Typhlodromus pyri (Acari: Phytoseiidae) and Aphidius rhopalosiphi (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae) are limit tests designed to compare a single-use rate of the product with a water control. The suitability of these test systems for generating dose-response data as required for refined ecotoxicological risk assessment was evaluated. Data on dose-response toxicity of crop protection products to T. pyri and A. rhopalosiphi were generated under worst-case laboratory and to T. pyri under extended laboratory conditions and analysed using the standard Probit method, a logistic regression, a generalised Probit analysis, and the moving average-angle method in order to calculate the LR50-values (application rate killing 50?% of the exposed organisms). The fit of the models, the precision of the resulting LR50 values, and the required minimum number of replicates were compared. In 85?% of the studies, at least one of the statistical methods led to satisfactory results. The moving average-angle method was the most widely applicable method. The results show that the existing guidelines can be used to perform dose-response tests. Implications for risk assessment are discussed.  相似文献   

7.
Although wildfires are identified as an important source of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and PAHs are well-known for their pernicious properties, the toxicity of runoff from recently burnt areas has received little research attention. This knowledge gap was addressed here through laboratory assays in which four aquatic species from distinct trophic levels were exposed to different dilutions of ash-loaded runoff. The runoff was collected in a recently burnt eucalypt stand in north-central Portugal on two occasions, immediately after the wildfire and about 1?year later. The total PAH load was about four times higher at the first than second sampling occasion (1194 vs. 352?ng?l?1) but even the latter value was considerably higher than those reported by prior studies on burnt areas. In addition, the two runoff samples differed noticeably in PAH composition, with a clear predominance of naphthalene in the second sample. Both runoff samples produced significant inhibitory effects on the three species representing the lower trophic levels, that is, the bacteria Vibrio fischeri, the algae Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata and the macrophyte Lemna minor. The invertebrate Daphnia magna was not significantly affected but chronic tests are needed to discard the probable propagation of toxic effects from the lower trophic levels. Surprisingly, the runoff collected 1?year after the wildfire was the most toxic to V. fischeri, P. subcapitata and L. minor. Possibly, this was due to predominance of naphthalene in this sample. Surely, however, this demonstrated that detrimental off-site effects of wildfires are not necessarily limited to the immediate post-fire situation.  相似文献   

8.
Tuta absoluta is a key pest of tomato crops originating from South America. The consequences of X-radiation on this species were studied under laboratory controlled conditions. The effect of radiation on adult emergence was evaluated exposing male and female pupae to increasing X-rays. Adult emergence decreased as doses of X-radiation increased, with the appearance of deformities such as malformed wings and bent legs at doses ≥350?Gy. Besides, males and females obtained from irradiated pupae were out crossed with untreated counterparts to explore the effects of X-radiation on inherited sterility. (a) Irradiated male?×?untreated female crosses. Both fecundity and fertility of the untreated females were reduced by radiation, and the effect was stronger as the doses increased. Neither the longevity of parental males and F1 adults nor the sex ratios of the F1 and F2 generations were affected by X-radiation (F1 and F2: first and second generation of descendants of irradiated adults). Inherited sterility effects were manifested by a significant reduction in the F1 fecundity, F1 fertility, and the amount of larvae and pupae produced. Doses of 200–250?Gy could be used to induce inherited sterility in T. absoluta males. (b) Untreated male?×?irradiated female crosses. The minimum dose at which irradiated females were completely sterile was 200?Gy. The present study is the first study in T. absoluta that provides the starting point for implementing the inherited sterility in this species.  相似文献   

9.
The brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), has been causing massive damage to various fruit and vegetable crops after its arrival in the USA, and more recently in Europe. To provide an alternative control measure to pesticides, the native egg parasitoid Anastatus bifasciatus (Geoffroy) (Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae) was considered as a candidate biological control agent for inundative releases in Europe. In the risk assessment study presented here, all nine heteropteran and 14 out of 19 tested lepidopteran non-target species produced viable A. bifasciatus offspring. The proportion of A. bifasciatus females producing offspring did not differ between non-target and target for 19 out of the 28 non-target species. Larger host eggs corresponded to increased female-biased sex ratio of the offspring as well as an increase in size, particularly for females, with hind tibia lengths varying from 645.5?±?46 to 1084?±?28.5 μm. Larger females were also found to have higher offspring production and increased life expectancy. The results of this study confirmed the polyphagous nature of A. bifasciatus and suggest that a number of non-target species, including Lepidoptera of conservation interest, may be attacked in the field. Thus, non-target effects cannot entirely be ruled out, but more information is needed from semi-field and field studies to fully assess potential environmental risks due to inundative releases of this native parasitoid.  相似文献   

10.
The EU Plant Protection Product Directive 91/414/EEC recommends the EPPO/CoE Arthropod Natural Enemies Risk Assessment Scheme for guidance on how to conduct risk assessments for terrestrial non-target arthropods. This scheme is currently in the process of being revised by EPPO/ CoE. A major change will be the recommendation for the generation and use of ’Dose Response’ toxicity data instead of limit test data. In addition, the revised EPPO/CoE Non-target Arthropods Risk Assessment Scheme will replace the current arbitrary 30% threshold trigger value applied to limit test data, with a Hazard Quotient (HQ; = Ratio Application Rate/LC50 on Glass)), comparable to the successful approach adopted in the EPPO/CoE ’Honeybee Risk Assessment Scheme’. However, in order for this new approach to be implemented under 91/414/EEC, an appropriate regulatory HQ trigger value needs to be derived. Such an HQ trigger value has been established by calculating HQ values for the 2 recommended sensitive indicator species (T pyri andAphidius) for a wide range of products and validating opposite robust semi-field/field data. This validation indicated that an HQ trigger value of ≥ 12 forT pyri and ≥ 8 forAphidius spp., should be used to trigger higher-tier risk assessment and/or higher-tier testing for non-target arthropods. As these trigger values were validated with realistic semi-field/ field data they apply for both lethal and sub-lethal effects as well as single and multiple application scenarios. Due to the worst case assumptions used in this HQ validation analysis, no further uncertainty factors need to be applied for in-crop risk assessment. Whilst a small amount of uncertainty exists regarding the comparative sensitivity ofT pyri andAphidius spp. for off-crop non-target arthropod guilds of arthropods, this is balanced by the fact that the off-crop exposure assessment used in the HQ derivation, is at least an order of magnitude higher than that realistically likely in the field. This HQ approach and trigger value is an appropriate and conservative tool for tier 1 risk assessment, which should reduce the number of false positive results leading to unnecessary higher-tier testing.  相似文献   

11.
A laboratory study revealed that females of the phytoseiid mite, Amblyseius swirskii Athias-Henriot, fed on protonymphs of their own species or of other predatory mites i.e. Agistemus exsertus Gonzales and Euseius scutalis Athias-Henriot exhibited a marked decline in their fecundity and a shortening in their longevity. Moreover, the rate of predation was also reduced. When A. swirskii females were fed on nymphs of the two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch after having been fed previously on protonymphs of either A. swirskii or A. exsertus increases in the rates of oviposition and consumption were observed, although these rates were lower than those of conspecific females reared continuously on the two-spotted spider mite only.  相似文献   

12.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of organic amendment on the germination and growth patterns of Jatropha curcas L. on completely barren and degraded land in the Sahelian area of Burkina Faso. Prior to the field trials, laboratory germination tests were undertaken to explore the impact of different pre-treatments on germination of Jatropha seeds. Seeds soaked in water for 24?h had the highest mean rate of germination (86%) while seeds that were pre-treated with sulphuric acid did not germinate. The results of the field experiment showed that plant growth and biomass development were significantly enhanced by organic amendment compared to the control. With direct seeding, 20% of the plants treated with organic manure survived after 2?years, while all seedlings of the control plot perished. In the plantations, 30% of the untreated seedlings remained alive whereas only 5% of the plants survived with amendment. The trials in unfenced plots were decimated by livestock grazing and trampling 2?months after the beginning of the experiment. This emphasizes the need to protect Jatropha plants at an early stage of their development from roaming animals. Organic amendment attracted humivorous termites, which were destructive to the seedlings. The use of pesticides may be necessary to control this problem. When directly seeded, plants of the control plots demonstrated poor growth and became rapidly diseased, further accelerating their decline. The low survival rates (5–30%) and meagre seedling performance, even for the amended plots, may be an indication that Jatropha is unsuited to severely degraded lands like the zippelé, and cannot be expected to give good yields and the claimed environmental and socio-economic benefits. However, we recommend that the performance of Jatropha on the zippelé should be further tested with other soil and water conservation techniques (half-moon, tillage, etc.) that have been shown to enhance crop production and yield on degraded lands in the Sahelo-Sudanian zone of West Africa. The impact of seed provenance on the outcome of this study is unknown. Therefore, further experiments should embrace seeds from different sources, including genotypes that are more adapted to dry conditions and might therefore show improved performance.  相似文献   

13.
Diaeretiella rapae (M’Intosh.) is an endoparasite of the turnip aphid,Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.) with a wide geographical distribution. The four Pesticides Nogos 50 EC at 600 ml per acre, Dimecron 50 WSC, Monofos 40 WSC and Tamaron 600 SL at 500 ml per acre, used in practice for the control of this pest, were tested for their side-effects onD. rapae. The parasitoid was reared on pottedBrassica napus plants infested with aphid under laboratory conditions (22±2°C, 60–70% rel. hum., 16 h light and 8 h dark). In one test, adult female parasitoids were exposed to fresh pesticide residues on glass plates and in another test, the pupae within aphid mummies were directly sprayed. The results revealed that Dimecron 50 WSC, Nogos 50 EC and Monofos 40 WSC were harmful causing 100% mortalitv toD. rapae followed by Tamaron 600 SL (97% moderately harmful) after 24 hours of application, compared to no mortality in control, where only water was sprayed. Directly spraying of pupae with Dimecron 50 WSC and Nogos 50 EC reduced adult parasitoid emergence to 9 and 7%, respectively, Monofos 40 WSC and Tamaron 600 SL to 3% compared to 78% emergence for the control within one week of treatment. The results showed that none of the tested pesticides was safe toD. rapae and according to the International Organization for Biological Control (IOBC) further testing under semi-field and field conditions is recommended.  相似文献   

14.
The effect of four cotton cultivars on the oviposition behavior of the pink bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) was studied under laboratory and semi-field conditions. Young plants and bolls from four commercial upland cotton cultivars (Lachata, Macnair-220, Midas and Sandra) cultivated in the area of Thessaloniki were used. The four cultivars had palmate leaves, and nectaries on both leaves and bolls. Differences were observed in the trichome density and the length of leaf petiole among the cultivars. The typical shape of bolls was either round or ovate. Differences were observed among the cultivars tested in boll size and bract’s length. In a series of experiments we recorded the number of eggs oviposited in no-, two-, three-, and four-choice tests using either young plants or bolls. Although the four cotton cultivars exhibited a variation in morphological characteristics, the mean number of eggs oviposited on young plants and bolls did not differ among them in two-, three-, and four-choice experiments. Substantially higher number of eggs were oviposited on either young plants or bolls of Midas in no-choice experiments. Eggs were oviposited mainly on newly developed unfolded leaves of the young plants and under the calyx of the bolls. In a semi-field experiment, we found a clear oviposition preference for bolls compared with plant terminals in all the cultivars tested. Females oviposited similar number of eggs in the four cultivars. We discuss the effect of morphological characteristics of cotton cultivars on the oviposition behavior of pink bollworm.  相似文献   

15.
The navel orangeworm (Amyelois transitella) (Walker) is a destructive pest of tree nuts in California orchards. Overall demand for these crops and acreage expansions have resulted in significant insecticide applications to reduce A. transitella damage. Despite widespread use in A. transitella insecticide applications, the potential toxicity of adjuvants applied in combination with insecticides remains uncharacterized. In these experiments, five adjuvants (Cohere®, Dyne-Amic®, FastStrike®, Induce®, Latron B-1956®), alone and in combination with the diamide insecticides chlorantraniliprole (Altacor®) and flubendiamide (Belt®), were assessed for activity against the adults and eggs of A. transitella. Laboratory studies utilized a spray tower for application while field studies used orchard air-blast sprayers. Laboratory exposure of both adults and eggs demonstrated that adjuvant toxicity varied across life stages. In the laboratory, the addition of chlorantraniliprole to adjuvants increased incapacity (dead + moribund). The results for flubendiamide were variable, and only FastStrike had the same high adult toxicity for both diamides. For eggs exposed to these diamides, overall mortality was similar. In field studies, Dyne-Amic and Latron B-1956 were tested and their adult toxicity varied. In contact assays, effects of adjuvants were similar when used with Belt® and differed when used with Altacor®. We conclude that the adjuvants for navel orangeworm management are intrinsically toxic to A. transitella in both the laboratory and field. Further studies are needed to attain the toxicity realized in the laboratory in field applications and also to determine whether our findings of adjuvant enhancement of insecticide toxicity are applicable to other insecticide classes.  相似文献   

16.
The side effects of methoxyfenozide, indoxacarb, pyridaben, acetamiprid, azadirachtin A, spinosad, and propargite on Aphidius colemani, Aphidoletes aphidimyza, and Neoseiulus cucumeris were tested under laboratory conditions. Methoxyfenozide had low toxic effect on all three species, causing mortality after 24 h in 4.4, 11.4, and 29.3% of N. cucumeris, A. colemani, and A. aphidimyza, respectively. Similarly, indoxacarb caused mortality after 24 h in 11.9, 20.0, and 24.9% of A. aphidimyza, N. cucumeris, and A. colemani, respectively. In general, N. cucumeris exhibited the lowest sensitivity to all the insecticides. In contrast, A. colemani was highly sensitive to most of the tested insecticides. Methoxyfenozide was shown to significantly reduce fecundity of A. aphidimyza. In contrast, there was no effect of pure azadirachtin A on A. colemani fecundity. Results showed that both methoxyfenozide and indoxacarb would be suitable for use in the integrated pest management (IPM) because of their low toxic effect against all of the tested model species of natural enemies.  相似文献   

17.
Bioassays and scanning electron microscopy of Conidiobolus obscurus for bamboo aphids as well as its effects on the fecundity of bamboo aphids were carried out to estimate bamboo aphid biocontrol potential. Multi-concentration bioassay and fecundity assessment were performed on aphid species of Takecallis taiwanus, Takecallis arundinariae, Melanaphis bambusae, and Metamacropodaphis bambusisucta. C. obscurus can effectively infect four species of bamboo aphids, and most cadavers appeared in the first 2 days after inoculation. The final mortalities reached 74–91 % at high concentrations of conidia among the tested species. Based on the fitted time–concentration–mortality models, the estimates of the median lethal concentration (LC50) of the fungal conidia differed significantly among different aphid species and decreased with observation days. The lowest LC50 was estimated to be 57 conidia mm?2 for T. taiwanus on day 5 after conidial shower. Moreover, the C. obscurus-infected aphids only produced 3.9–18.2 % progeny of the corresponding healthy aphids, which strongly presented fungal influence on host fecundity. In conclusion, C. obscurus has the ability of restraining the development of bamboo aphid populations, which is suitable for further application in aphid biocontrol in bamboo forests.  相似文献   

18.
  • ?The study aimed at clarifying basic life traits (fecundity, mortality and development) of Monochamus galloprovincialis, the vector of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, the causative agent of the Pine Wilt Disease, in Portugal.
  • ? Mating and oviposition experiments were conducted on P. sylvestris logs under laboratory conditions during two years. Larval development was followed outdoors.
  • ? Fecundity was high, with 138.2 eggs per female.
  • ? For the first time, the number of larval instars (4) in M. galloprovincialis was recognized and instars were described.
  • ? Informations are provided on the shape and size of the larval galleries. Boring of galleries in sapwood and heartwood started at the third instar. All instars could overwinter but adults emerged simultaneously resulting in a univoltine life cycle for the majority of the individuals.
  • ? An obligatory diapause in the forth instar was assumed. However, 8.1% of the insects had a two year development.
  • ? Important differences in mortality were noted between the two experimental years, which could be explained by differences on the size of the breeding logs.
  • ? There is a high biological proximity between M. galloprovincialis populations in France and those in Portugal and Northern Europe. However, a higher fecundity and longevity was observed in France, as well as a higher percentage of insects with a two year development, compared with portuguese populations.
    •   相似文献   

    19.
    The present paper deals with laboratory studies on side-effects of the mixed biocide GCSC-BtA on Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lep., Plutellidae) and its predators, e.?g. Amblyseius longispinosus (Evans) (Acari, Phytoseiidae), Erigonidium graminicola (Sundvall) (Araneae, Linyphiidae), Orius similis Zheng (Het., Anthocoridae) and Coccinella septempunctata L.(Col., Coccinellidae), in comparison to the commercial insecticides, e.?g. Abamectin, Tebufenozide, Dichlorvos, Cartap and Lambda-cyhalothrin. The results showed that GCSC-BtA was highly toxic to the 3rd instar of P. xylostella with 91.18?% mortality, followed by Cartap with 84.38?%, Abamectin with 78.00?%, Tebufenozide with 75.57?%, Lambda-cyhalothrin with 63.75?% and Dichlorvos with 50.86?% mortality. On the other hand, GCSC-BtA was found to be comparatively less toxic to the predators, causing 31.11?%, 13.33?%, 11.54?% and 6.00?% mortalities in A. longispinosus, E. graminicola, O. similis and C. septempunctata, respectively. For comparison, the mortalities recorded for Abamectin, Tebufenozide, Dichlorvos, Cartap, Lambda-cyhalothrin were 72.94?%, 55.55?%, 70.00?%, 53.26?% and 98.85?% in A. longispinosus, 46.51?%, 55.10?%, 60.00?%, 46.00?% and 73.68?% in E. graminicola, 22.00?%, 16.00?%, 35.71?%, 26.78?% and 81.03?% in O. similis, 15.55?%, 19.64?%, 28.00?%, 16.66?% and 41.79?% in C. septempunctata, respectively. Cluster analysis was introduced to group the mortalities caused by the treatments into three toxicity groups with the distance of D?=?4.1. The 1st group consisted of GCSC-BtA characterized with low toxicity to all the predators tested with 15.49?% mortality on average (highest 31.11?% and lowest 6.00?%). The 2nd group consisted of Abamectin, Tebufenozide, Dichlorvos and Cartap with moderate toxicity to the predators with 39.96?% mortality on average. The 3rd group included Lambda-cyhalothrin with high toxicity to the predators with 73.83?% mortality on average (highest 98.85?% and lowest 41.70?%). The susceptibility of the pest and its predators to GCSC-BtA and the insecticides is discussed. GCSC-BtA as a biological control agent is recommended for use in the integrated pests control programs in the vegetable fields.  相似文献   

    20.
    Methanol extracts of Bifora radians, Arctium lappa, Humulus lupulus and Xanthium strumarium were tested against the North American grape berry moth, Paralobesia viteana in laboratory and greenhouse assays. Egg hatch was reduced by B. radians and X. strumarium extracts, whereas larval mortality was observed in response to B. radians, X. strumarium and A. lappa. Given the high mortality against egg and larval stages of this pest caused by extracts of B. radians, further studies were performed to determine the dose?Cresponse relationships between extracts of this plant and oviposition and egg hatch of P. viteana. There was a significant reduction in egglaying and egg hatch with increasing extract concentration, with 0.1% extracts providing 80% mortality and 1% extracts causing more than 90% control. This study demonstrates the potential of this plant extract for crop protection against a key pest of grapes and suggests that additional crop pests and field tests should be pursued to determine the efficacy of B. radians extracts as a biopesticide.  相似文献   

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