首页 | 本学科首页   官方微博 | 高级检索  
相似文献
 共查询到20条相似文献，搜索用时 31 毫秒
1.
T Art  P Lekeux 《The Veterinary record》1988,123(11):295-299
A preliminary study attempted to assess the influence of atmospheric conditions on the breathing pattern of ponies. The respiratory airflow, tidal volume, breathing frequency, minute volume, total pulmonary resistance and heart rate of five ponies (257 +/- 9 kg and three to five years old) were measured by a standardised procedure. Data were collected at rest, during a nine minute period of treadmill exercise and during a five minute recovery period. The ambient temperature (degrees C) and relative humidity (%) were recorded at the time of each investigation and the respiratory parameters were divided into two groups according to whether the sum of these measurements was less than 85, ie, the conditions were cold and dry or greater than 85, ie, the conditions were relatively hot and humid. Data for each pony in both conditions were compared. The ambient temperature and relative humidity did not significantly modify the breathing pattern of the ponies either at rest or during exercise. On the other hand the frequency of breathing was significantly higher and the tidal volume and total pulmonary resistance were significantly lower during recovery in hot and humid conditions than in cold and dry conditions, while the minute volume remained unchanged. It was concluded that, during recovery, environmental conditions may modify the breathing pattern of horses. This suggests that in hot and humid weather conditions the respiratory rate may be an unreliable measure of the fitness of a horse and, consequently, that a more complete pulmonary investigation should be undertaken for an assessment of fitness.  相似文献   

2.
Exercise-induced variations in their ventilatory mechanics were studied in 8 healthy ponies 4.2±1.4 years old and weighing 282±11 kg. Airflow (V), tidal volume (VT), esophageal pressure, mask pressure and electrocardiogram were simultaneously recorded before, during and after a treadmill (incline 8.3°) exercise which consisted of 2 min walking (1.5 m.sec-1), 3 min slow trotting (3.0 m.sec-1) and 3 min fast trotting (3.5 m.sec-1). The results of three consecutive daily measurements were averaged for each pony.Heart rate, minute volume (Ve), respiratory frequency (f) and peak inspiratory and expiratory V, mean inspiratory and expiratory V, and peak to peak changes in traspulmonary pressure (maxdPtp) increased linearly and significantly with increasing velocity (v) (R2=0.99). Tidal volume and the inspiratory time to total breathing time ratio showed a curvilinar relation with v (R2=0.99). Minute volume, maxdPtp, total pulmonary resistance (RL) and VT increased from rest to fast trot 6.7, 5.7, 1.5 and 1.6 times respectively. When the ponies stopped all these values decreased significantly. After 5 min recovery, the Ve was approximately doubled, VT and max dPtp unchanged and RL 30% smaller than their respective resting values. The exercise-induced increase in Ve was achieved by an increase in f at both low and high intensity of work.  相似文献   

3.
The purpose of this study was to characterize the normal equine tidal breathing flow-volume loop (TBFVL). The study was performed using 18 healthy Thoroughbred horses. TBFVLs constructed from data collected from resting horses had a typical biphasic inspiratory and expiratory phase. The interindividual variability of the indices used to describe TBFVLs was in the range 16–32%, which is comparable to the variability of other measures of equine pulmonary mechanics. The large variability of these data probably limits the value of resting TBFVL indices for detecting subclinical respiratory conditions in individual horses. Factor analysis of these data revealed that in excess of 90% of the variance of the initial response variables could be explained in terms of three common factors. Varimax rotation of these three common factors provided three subsequent factors that were readily identifiable as (1) a factor describing the time-volume relationships of TBFVLs, responsible for 81% of the total variance, (2) a factor explaining the expiratory portion of the TBFVL, explaining 12% of the variance, and (3) a factor describing the inspiratory portion of the loops, responsible for the remaining 7% of the variance. The analysis also provided standardized factor scoring coefficients for use in subsequent studies using similar experimental techniques.Abbreviations EF25 expiratory flow at expiratory volume plus 25%V E - EF50 midtidal expiratory flow - f respiratory rate - IF25 inspiratory flow at 25% of inspiratory volume - IF50 midtidal inspiratory flow - MSA measure of sampling adequacy - PEF peak expiratory flow - PIF peak inspiratory flow - TBFVL tidal breathing flow-volume loop - T E expiratory time - T I inspiratory time - USPTM ultrasonic pneumotachometer - V E expiratory volume - V I inspiratory volume  相似文献   

4.
In order to better understand the bovine breathing pattern, tidal breathing flow-volume loops (TBFVL) were analyzed in 24 healthy cattle of different body weights (range: 37–660 kg) (Group A) and in 28 cattle suffering from the common respiratory diseases: verminous bronchitis (Group B); shipping fever (Group C); acute respiratory distress syndrome (Group D); respiratory syncytial virus pneumonia (Group E); organophosphate poisoning (Group F); and necrotic laryngitis (Group G).Respiratory airflow and tidal volume were measured with a breathing mask-Fleisch pneumotachograph assembly. TBFVL were traced from these values using a computerized method. All the loop indices proposed by Amis and Kurpershoek (1986a) were calculated from 5 representative breathing cycles for each of the 52 animals.The TBFVL shapes and indices were relatively constant in most healthy cattle and were not correlated with the body size. When compared to normal values, animals with moderate respiratory syndromes (Groups B and C) had a more flattened shape to their TBFVL. On the other hand, in most cattle with severe respiratory pathologies (Groups D, F and G) expiration tended to be biphasic with the peak expiratory flow (PEF) occurring significantly later than in healthy animals. Both PEF and peak inspiratory flow were increased in all the pathological conditions. The TBFVL indices were more frequently and more severely changed during expiration than during inspiration.  相似文献   

5.
The effects of histamine and methacholine aerosols and of a fixed inspiratory resistance on tidal breathing flow-volume loops (TBFVL) were investigated using 18 unsedated, standing, healthy thoroughbred horses. The data were first analysed using traditional flow-volume loop indices and then reduced using standardized factor scoring coefficients obtained in a previous study in this laboratory using similar experimental techniques. On the basis of resting TBFVL analysis, the degree of pulmonary dysfunction caused by inhalation of histamine and methacholine aerosols with concentrations of 10 and 2 mg/ml, respectively, was similar. The fixed resistance also caused significant changes in the resting spirogram and TBFVL indices, suggesting that this model may prove valuable for further studies involving upper respiratory tract (URT) conditions.Administration of histamine and methacholine aerosols resulted in significant changes in all factor scores, although most of the observed changes were due to the effects of these aerosols on the respiratory rate. These findings re-emphasize the importance of the effects of respiratory rate on pulmonary mechanics. Application of the resistance resulted in significant changes in factor score 3, the inspiratory factor, which lends support to the validity of this model for URT conditions. The close agreement between the factor scores obtained under controlled conditions in this study and in a previous study in this laboratory confirms that the factor analysis used for both of these studies provides an adequate means of reducing TBFVL data obtained from thoroughbred horses.The large intra- and inter-individual variation observed both with the indices of TBFVL and with the factor scores limits the potential of these variables for detecting individual animals with obstructive airway disease. Re-evaluation of these indices under the stress of exercise may reduce the variability observed in these data and may increase the magnitude of differences between different animals, providing a means of detecting individual animals with subclinical obstructive airway conditions.Abbreviations CV coefficient of variation - P pl,max maximal intrapleural pressure difference - FVL flow-volume loop - LRT lower respiratory tract - P ao airway opening pressure - P tp transpulmonary pressure - TBVFL tidal breathing flow-volume loop - URT upper respiratory tract - USPTM ultrasonic pneumotachometer  相似文献   

6.
Using a mask, pneumotachograph, and X-Y recorder, tidal breathing flow-volume loops (TBFVL) were evaluated in 33 healthy dogs and in 18 dogs with acquired obstructive respiratory tract disease. The loops were evaluated for qualitative shape, tidal volume (VT), respiratory rate, peak and midtidal inspiratory flow (PIF and IF50, respectively), peak and midtidal expiratory flow (PEF and EF50, respectively), inspiratory and expiratory flow at end expiratory volume plus 25% VT (IF25 and EF25, respectively), inspiratory time, and expiratory time. Indices of loop shape were developed by division of flow measurements (eg, PEF/PIF and IF50/IF25). Twenty healthy dogs had the same TBFVL (type 1). Typically, PEF occurred at the beginning of expiration, and PIF occurred toward the end of inspiration. Three other TBFVL types were identified in the remaining dogs. Mean coefficients of variation for TBFVL indices ranged from 7% to 18%. Dogs with a fixed-type upper airway obstruction (pharyngeal or laryngeal mass, n = 7) had TBFVL abnormalities, indicating inspiratory and expiratory phase flattening. Concavity or late expiratory phase flattening was detected in TBFVL from dogs with chronic bronchitis/tracheal collapse (n = 11). The TBFVL were easily evaluated in conscious dogs and were useful in the functional assessment of airway obstruction.  相似文献   

7.
Tidal Breathing Flow-Volume Loops in Healthy and Bronchitic Cats   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
Tidal breathing flow-volume loops (TBFVL) were obtained from 19 healthy cats and 7 cats with chronic bronchial disease. Peak inspiratory flow (PIF) occurred late in the inspiratory cycle and was preceded by a gradual but more linear increase in the flow rate. Peak expiratory flow (PEF) occurred early during expiration and was followed by a curvilinear decrease in flow to a point near the end of expiration where flow ceased. The loops obtained were generally reproducible. The mean coefficient of variation (CV) for TBFVL indices of healthy cats ranged from 5.6% to 21.9%. Loop indices from cats with chronic bronchial disease had a mean CV between 6.6% and 28.4%. Significant differences were noted in the bronchitic cats' TBFVLs, including an increased ratio of expiratory time to inspiratory time, lower expiratory flow rates, decreased area under total and peak expiratory flow curves, and decreased tidal breathing expiratory volumes (TBEV) at 0.1 and 0.5 seconds. Selected TBFVL indices were also significantly reduced. TBFVL evaluation in the cat is easy to perform, is reproducible, and has allowed for the detection of changes during tidal breathing in cats with histories and physical findings of chronic lower airway disease. (Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 1993; 7:388–393. Copyright © 1993 by the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine.)  相似文献   

8.
Upper airway obstruction in canine laryngeal paralysis   总被引：3，自引：0，他引：3  
The type and the severity of airway obstruction in 30 dogs with bilateral laryngeal paralysis was assessed, using tidal breathing flow-volume loop (TBFVL) analysis. The dogs had clinical evidence of mild-to-severe upper airway obstruction (ie, respiratory distress, exercise intolerance, stridor). Seventeen dogs had TBFVL consistent with a nonfixed (inspiratory) obstruction, 10 had TBFVL indicative of a fixed (inspiratory/expiratory) obstruction, and 3 had normal TBFVL. Analysis of TBFVL confirmed that dogs with laryngeal paralysis have upper airway obstruction that differs in type and severity. Use of TBFVL provided a quantitative evaluation of airway obstruction and demonstrated the effects of bilateral laryngeal paralysis on the breathing patterns of dogs.  相似文献   

9.
Pleural, tracheal, pharyngeal and mask pressures as well as airflow and tidal volume of five ponies on a treadmill (incline 8.3 degrees) were recorded simultaneously while resting, walking, trotting slowly, trotting fast, after standing for 30 secs and 5 mins after the end of the exercise. The curves obtained were used to calculate total pulmonary resistance (RL), lower airway resistance (RLA) and upper airway resistance (RUA). The latter was also divided into nasal resistance (Rnas) and laryngeal plus extrathoracic tracheal resistance (Retr + lar). Furthermore, the inspiratory and expiratory components of each of these R values were estimated. Levels of RL, RLA and RUA were increased significantly during exercise but, during the recovery period, the values were significantly lower than those pre-exercise. RUA represented 82 per cent of RL at rest and this percentage did not change significantly during and after exercise. The nasal resistance to RUA ratio was always higher than 0.5. The fact that RL increased with exercise intensity was due to the increase of RUA during inspiration, and mainly a result of the increase of RLA during expiration. At fast trot, RLA represented 5 and 50 per cent of RL during inspiration and expiration respectively. It was concluded that heavy exercise induces in ponies an increase of RL, one reason for which could be the partial collapse of the extrathoracic and intrathoracic airways during inspiration and expiration respectively.  相似文献   

10.
The efficacy of partial arytenoidectomy was assessed in 6 Standardbred horses, with surgically induced laryngeal hemiplegia, at rest (Period A) and during exercise at speeds corresponding to maximum heart rate (Period C) and 75% of maximum heart rate (Period B). Peak expiratory and inspiratory airflow rate (PEF and PIF), and expiratory and inspiratory transupper airway pressure (PUE and PUI) were measured and expiratory and inspiratory impedance (ZE and ZI) were calculated. Simultaneously, tidal breathing flow-volume loops (TBFVL) were acquired using a respiratory function computer. Indices derived from TBFVL included airflow rates at 50 and 25% of tidal volume (EF50, IF50, EF25. and IF25) and the ratios of expiratory to inspiratory flows. Measurements were made before left recurrent laryngeal neurectomy (baseline), 2 weeks after left recurrent laryngeal neurectomy (LRLN) and 16 weeks after left partial arytenoidectomy coupled with bilateral ventriculectomy (ARYT). After LRLN, during exercise Periods B and C, Z1 and the ratio of EF50/IF50 significantly increased and PIF, IF50 and IF25 significantly decreased from baseline values. At 16 weeks after ARYT, Z1 returned to baseline values during Periods B and C. Although PIF, IF50, IF25, PEF/PIF, and EF50/IF50 returned to baseline values during Period B, these indices remained significantly different from baseline measurements during Period C. After ARYT, TBFVL shapes from horses during Period C approached that seen at the baseline evaluation. Partial arytenoidectomy improved upper airway function in exercising horses with surgically induced left laryngeal hemiplegia, although qualitative and quantitative evaluation of TBFVLs suggested that some flow limitation remains at near maximal airflow rates. These results indicate that, although the procedure does not completely restore the upper airway to normal, partial arytenoidectomy is a viable treatment option for failed laryngoplasty and arytenoid chondropathy in the horse.  相似文献   

11.
OBJECTIVE: To determine the effect of a commercially available nasal strip on airway mechanics in exercising horses. ANIMALS: 6 horses (5 Standardbreds and 1 Thoroughbred). PROCEDURE: Horses exercised on a treadmill at speeds corresponding to 100 and 120% of maximal heart rate with and without application of a commercially available nasal strip. Concurrently, tracheal pressures, airflow, and heart rate were measured. Peak inspiratory and expiratory tracheal pressures, airflow, respiratory frequency, and tidal volume were recorded. Inspiratory and expiratory airway resistances were calculated by dividing peak pressures by peak flows. Endoscopic examination of the narrowest point of the nasal cavity (ie, nasal valve) was performed in 1 resting horse before, during, and after application of a nasal strip. RESULTS: During exercise on a treadmill, peak tracheal inspiratory pressure and inspiratory airway resistance were significantly less when nasal strips were applied to horses exercising at speeds corresponding to 100 and 120% of maximal heart rate. Application of the nasal strip pulled the dorsal conchal fold laterally, expanding the dorsal meatus. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The commercially available nasal strip tented the skin over the nasal valve and dilated that section of the nasal passage, resulting in decreased airway resistance during inspiration. The nasal strip probably decreases the amount of work required for respiratory muscles in horses during intense exercise and may reduce the energy required for breathing in these horses.  相似文献   

12.
The pattern of breathing was assessed in 19 brachycephalic dogs, using tidal breathing flow-volume loop (TBFVL) analysis. Fifteen dogs had TBFVL consistent with a fixed-type upper airway obstruction, whereas 4 dogs had a TBFVL indicative of a nonfixed upper airway obstruction. The dogs did not have a TBFVL shape the same as that considered normal for healthy nonbrachycephalic dogs. Tidal breathing flow-volume loops from brachycephalic dogs that were considered to have a normal respiratory tract (n = 11) were similar to those of dogs with clinical signs of upper airway obstruction (n = 8). Respiration was monitored continuously for short periods (20 to 50 minutes) in 3 brachycephalic dogs resting in a cage in a quiet, darkened laboratory; 2 of these dogs had periodic breathing patterns characterized by multiple episodes of alternating hypopnea and arousal. Brachycephalic dogs may be at risk for the development of disordered breathing during sleep.  相似文献   

13.
Positive-pressure plethysmography was used to generate partial and maximal flow-volume data in 10 anesthetized dogs. Acetylcholine (ACh) administered IV induced significant (P less than 0.05) changes in tidal breathing, as evidenced by decreased tidal volume, increased respiratory rate and dynamic resistance, and decreased dynamic compliance. Partial forced-expiratory spirometry-determined from end inspiratory capacity and functional residual capacity, revealed changes in flow and volume as a result of ACh treatment. These changes were not seen in maximal curves (determined from total lung capacity). Peak expiratory flows were limited by the presence of an endotracheal tube. Use of instantaneous time-constant variables to evaluate the concavity or convexity of the downslope of a flow-volume curve did not reveal differences after IV ACh administration. Seemingly, partial forced-expiratory spirometry was useful in detecting bronchoconstriction in anesthetized dogs. Accepted techniques of flow-volume curve analysis for the evaluation of small airway function were not sensitive enough to detect bronchoconstriction in the dog.  相似文献   

14.
The purposes of this study were to develop an experimental model of canine laryngeal paralysis that mimicked the naturally occurring disease and to document the upper airway changes produced, both clinically and with pulmonary function testing. Ten dogs had bilateral recurrent laryngeal neurectomy performed and were recovered from anesthesia. Tidal breathing flow-volume loop analysis and upper airway resistance measurements were taken before and after the development of clinical laryngeal paralysis while dogs breathed room air and after the individual administration of 2 respiratory stimulants. Clinical signs of laryngeal paralysis developed 38 days (median) following denervation. Although some variations were present, tidal breathing flow-volume loop analyses on room air, following denervation, were similar to those reported in naturally occurring cases. Upper airway resistance increased following denervation and was significantly increased with both respiratory stimulants. We concluded that bilateral recurrent laryngeal neurectomy resulted in clinical signs and respiratory changes similar to those of idiopathic canine laryngeal paralysis.  相似文献   

15.
Background: Tracheoscopy is generally used for the diagnosis of tracheal collapse (TC) in dogs; yet, it is costly, requires anesthesia, and can irritate the airway. The tidal breathing flow‐volume loop (TBFVL) is a safe, quick, and noninvasive pulmonary function test currently used in humans. Hypothesis: TBFVL will differentiate dogs with TC from healthy controls and contribute to disease grading. Animals: Twenty‐eight dogs with naturally occurring TC and 10 healthy controls. Methods: Cross‐sectional, prospective clinical study: The 38 dogs were assigned to one of 4 groups based on tracheoscopy results: group A (n = 10, healthy controls), group B (n = 10, grade I TC), group C (n = 10, grade II TC), and group D (n = 8, grade III TC). The TBFVL measurement was performed on all dogs and loops were assessed for their shape. Forty‐four TBFVL parameters were calculated. Results: Two types of TBFVL shapes were identified: Type I, representative of the 10 healthy controls, and Type II, representative of the 28 dogs with TC. Statistical analysis showed the dogs could be differentiated into healthy or affected by TC by 3 indices, TE/TI (expiratory time divided by inspiratory time), TI/TTOT (inspiratory time divided by total respiratory time), and EF75/IF75 (expiratory flow at end tidal volume plus 75% end tidal volume divided by inspiratory flow at end tidal volume plus 75% end tidal volume). The TC could also be graded as mild‐moderate (grades I and II) or severe (grade III), showing a diagnostic value of 97.4%. Conclusion and Clinical Importance: TBFVL is accurate, quick, noninvasive, and safe and can contribute to the diagnosis of TC in dogs.  相似文献   

16.
Distribution of blood flow among various respiratory muscles was examined in 8 healthy ponies during submaximal exercise lasting 30 minutes, using radionuclide labeled 15-microns diameter microspheres injected into the left ventricle. From the resting values (40 +/- 2 beats/min; 37.3 +/- 0.2 C), heart rate and pulmonary arterial blood temperature increased significantly at 5 (152 +/- 8 beats/min; 38.6 +/- 0.2 C), 15 (169 +/- 6 beats/min; 39.8 +/- 0.2 C), and 26 (186 +/- 8 beats/min; 40.8 +/- 0.2 C) minutes of exertion, and the ponies sweated profusely. Mean aortic pressure also increased progressively as exercise duration increased. Blood flow increased significantly with exercise in all respiratory muscles. Among inspiratory muscles, perfusion was greatest in the diaphragm and ventral serratus, compared with external intercostal, dorsal serratus, and scalenus muscles. Among expiratory muscles, blood flow in the internal abdominal oblique muscle was greatest, followed by that in internal intercostal and transverse thoracic muscles, in which the flow values remained similar. The remaining 3 abdominal muscles had similar blood flow, but these values were less than that in the internal intercostal, transverse thoracic, and internal abdominal oblique muscles. Blood flow values for all inspiratory and expiratory muscles remained similar for the 5 and 15 minutes of exertion. However, at 26 minutes, blood flow had increased further in the diaphragm, external intercostal, internal intercostal, transverse thoracic, and the external abdominal oblique muscle as vascular resistance decreased. On the basis of our findings, all respiratory muscles were activated during submaximal exercise and their perfusion had marked heterogeneity.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)  相似文献   

17.
Pulmonary function testing (PFT) may be used to help provide objective information concerning the respiratory system in dogs and cats. Available techniques for PFT include spirometry, tidal breathing flow-volume loop analysis, barometric whole-body plethysmography, dynamic and static compliance, and lung and upper airway resistance. The information gained from PFT may help both in patient management and also in gaining understanding of the pathophysiology of the pulmonary system.  相似文献   

18.
Normal Standardbred horses were given an incremental exercise test on a horizontal treadmill to evaluate the influence of exercise on gas exchange, resistance, dynamic compliance and inertance of the respiratory system. The exercise test consisted of 2 min exercise steps at each of the following speeds: 2.4 m/sec (walk), 4.5 m/sec (slow trot), 7.0 m/sec (fast trot) and 10 m/sec (gallop). At rest and after 1 min of exercise at each step, airflow, tidal volume, respiratory frequency, pharyngeal, mid-oesophageal and transdiaphragmatic pressures and arterial blood gas tensions were measured. The same horses were subsequently treated intravenously with clenbuterol (0.8 microgram/kg) and an identical exercise test and measurement performed 10 min after clenbuterol injection. In response to exercise, there were large increases in tidal volume, respiratory frequency, airflow and pressures. Exercise was associated with a decrease in upper airway resistance but total pulmonary resistance was unchanged. Exercise did not alter inertance or dynamic compliance, horses became hypoxaemic, and at 10 m/sec (galloping) also developed hypercarbia. Treatment with clenbuterol did not alter any of these measurements in response to exercise. These data suggest that dilation of upper airways occurs during exercise, and that inertial forces are important in strenuously exercising horses and may influence the accuracy of dynamic compliance determinations at high exercise intensities.  相似文献   

19.
Horses are elite athletes when compared with other mammalian species. In the latter, performance is limited by cardiovascular or musculoskeletal performance whereas in athletic horses it is the respiratory system that appears to be rate limiting and virtually all horses exercising at high intensities become hypoxaemic and hypercapnoeic. This is due to both diffusion limitation and a level of ventilation inadequate for the metabolic level that enables horses to exercise at these intensities. In conjunction with these blood gas changes, total pulmonary resistance increases and the work of breathing rises exponentially and airflow eventually plateaus despite increases in inspiratory and expiratory intrapleural pressures. Horses breathe at comparatively high frequencies when galloping due to the tight 1:1 coupling of strides to breathing. Whether this effects gas exchange and, if so, to what extent, has not been fully elucidated.  相似文献   

20.
This paper attempts to evaluate the changes in the mechanical work of breathing induced by the increase of ventilation in ponies exercising on a treadmill. Airflow, tidal volume (VT) and oesophageal pressure were simultaneously recorded in eight ponies (four to six years old and weighing 258 +/- 11 kg) before, during and after standardised exercise. Respiratory frequency, VT and minute volume (Ve) for each phase of the experimental protocol were calculated from the collected data. The pressure-volume diagrams were traced and the work per cycle (Wrm) was estimated by measuring the area enclosed in the loop. The work per minute (Wrm) and the work per litre of ventilation (Wrm litre-1) were also calculated. From rest to fast trot Wrm litre-1, Wrm and Wrm had increased 8.1, 13.0 and 55.6 times, respectively. The relationships between Ve and Wrm litre-1 was linear and that between Ve and Wrm curvilinear. Results suggested that the mechanical cost of the work of breathing could be a limiting or at least a constraining factor of the increase of ventilation during strenuous exercise in ponies.  相似文献   

设为首页 | 免责声明 | 关于勤云 | 加入收藏

Copyright©北京勤云科技发展有限公司  京ICP备09084417号