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1.
Remarkable progress has been made towards a deeper understanding of mosquito biology since the completion of the Anopheles gambiae Giles genome project. Combined with the development of efficient transgenic technologies for genetic modification of major vector species and the availability of powerful molecular, genetic and bioinformatics tools, this is allowing the identification of genes involved in mosquito biological functions crucial to malaria transmission, ranging from host-seeking behaviour and innate immunity to insecticide resistance. Moreover, population genetic studies are beginning to elucidate the complex structure of vector populations. Finally, novel methods for malaria control are emerging that are based on the use of genetically modified mosquitoes either to interrupt the journey of the Plasmodium parasite within its insect host or to suppress those mosquito species that function as vectors for parasite transmission.  相似文献   

2.
Traditionally, the Microsporidia were primarily studied in insects and fish. There were only a few human cases of microsporidiosis reported until the advent of AIDS, when the number of human microsporidian infections dramatically increased and the importance of these new pathogens to medicine became evident. Over a dozen different kinds of microsporidia infecting humans have been reported. While some of these infections were identified in new genera (Enterocytozoon, Vittaforma), there were also infections identified from established genera such as Pleistophora and Encephalitozoon. The genus Pleistophora, originally erected for a species described from fish muscle, and the genus Encephalitozoon, originally described from disseminated infection in rabbits, suggested a link between human infections and animals. In the 1980's, three Pleistophora sp. infections were described from human skeletal muscle without life cycles presented. Subsequently, the genus Trachipleistophora was established for a human-infecting microsporidium with developmental differences from species of the genus Pleistophora. Thus, the existence of a true Pleistophora sp. or spp. in humans was put into question. We have demonstrated the life-cycle stages of the original Pleistophora sp. infection from human muscle, confirming the existence of a true Pleistophora species in humans, P. ronneafiei Cali et Takvorian, 2003, the first demonstrated in a mammalian host. Another human infection, caused by a parasite from invertebrates, was Brachiola algerae Lowman, Takvorian et Cali, 2000. The developmental stages of this human muscle-infecting microsporidium demonstrate morphologically what we have also confirmed by molecular means, that B. algerae, the mosquito parasite, is the causative agent of this human skeletal muscle infection. B. algerae had previously been demonstrated in humans but only in surface infections, skin and eye. The diagnostic features of B. algerae and P. ronneafiei infections in human skeletal muscle are presented. While Encephalitozoon cuniculi has been known as both an animal (mammal) and human parasite, the idea of human microsporidial infections derived from cold-blooded vertebrates and invertebrates has only been suggested by microsporidian phylogeny based on small subunit ribosomal DNA sequences but has not been appreciated. The morphological data presented here demonstrate these relationships. Additionally, water, as a link that connects microsporidial spores in the environment to potential host organisms, is diagrammatically presented.  相似文献   

3.
The epizootiology, transmission dynamics, and survival strategies employed by two mosquito-parasitic microsporidia that utilize copepods as intermediate hosts are examined in relation to the biological attributes of their hosts and the environments in which they inhabit. Amblyospora connecticus Andreadis, 1988, a parasite of Ochlerotatus cantator (Coquillett) and Acanthocyclops vernalis (Fischer) is found in an unstable salt marsh environment that is subject to periodic flooding and drying. Both hosts have distinct non-overlapping generations. A. connecticus exhibits a well-defined seasonal transmission cycle that relies heavily on maternal-mediated transovarial transmission by female O. cantator during the summer, and horizontal transmission via the copepod host during the spring (copepod to mosquito) and fall (mosquito to copepod). Its survival strategies include: delayed virulence, low pathogenicity and high tissue specificity that allow for transstadial transmission of horizontally acquired infections and maximum spore production, reliance on living hosts throughout most of its life cycle with overwintering in the copepod, polymorphic development that is well synchronized with host physiology, and production and dissemination of infectious spores that are coincident with the seasonal occurrence of susceptible stages in each host. Hyalinocysta chapmani Hazard et Oldacre, 1975, a parasite of Culiseta melanura (Coquillett) and Orthocyclops modestus (Herrick) is found in a comparatively stable, subterranean habitat that is inundated with water throughout the year. Copepods are omnipresent and C. melanura has overlapping broods. H. chapmani is maintained in a continuous cycle of horizontal transmission between each host throughout the summer and fall but lacks a developmental sequence leading to transovarial transmission in the mosquito host. It relies on living hosts for most of its life cycle and overwinters in diapausing mosquito larvae. Transstadial transmission does not occur and there is no dimorphic development in the mosquito host. The spatial and temporal overlap of both mosquito and copepod hosts during the summer and fall affords abundant opportunity for continuous horizontal transmission and increases the likelihood that H. chapmani will find a target host, thus negating the need for a transovarial route. It is hypothesized that natural selection has favoured the production of meiospores in larval female mosquitoes rather than congenital transfer of infection to progeny via ovarian infection as a strategy for achieving greater transmission success. Analysis of the molecular phylogeny data suggest that (1) transovarial transmission and the developmental sequence leading to ovarian infection have been secondarily lost in H. chapmani, as they occur in all other closely related genera, (2) the ancestral state included complex life cycles involving transovarial transmission and an intermediate host, and (3) mosquito-parasitic microsporidia are adjusting their life cycles to accommodate host ecological conditions.  相似文献   

4.
食虫瘤胸蛛生物学和生态学初步研究   总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2  
食虫瘤胸蛛是广西南部稻田优势蜘蛛种群。一年发生6代,世代重叠,以5、6月份繁殖最快。越冬现象不明显。其发生量早稻高于晚稻,与稻飞虱数量变动有相关性。  相似文献   

5.
The relative rates of cytochrome P450 selection in southern Mexican Anopheles albimanus populations were investigated during a 3 years indoor residual house spraying intervention with a pyrethroid (PYR) or DDT, a mosaic of organophosphate (OP)-PYR, and the annual rotation of OP-PYR-carbamate (CARB). This insecticide resistance mechanism, initially evenly spread in the mosquito population, correlated with PYR resistance during the second treated year, when cytochrome P450 contents increased in most villages of the PYR, rotation and mosaic schemes. However, by the third year, mean cytochrome P450 contents declined to susceptible levels in mosquitoes of the rotation and one mosaic group but not in the PYR-treated villages. In DDT-treated villages, a continuous decrement of cytochrome P450 levels occurred since the first treatment year, and susceptible levels were observed at the end of the intervention. Most correlations of cytochrome P450 levels and PYR resistance were lost during the third year, indicating that another mechanism evolved in resistant mosquito populations.  相似文献   

6.
Meloidogyne ethiopica is an important nematode pathogen causing serious economic damage to grapevine in Chile. In Brazil, M. ethiopica has been detected with low frequency in kiwifruit and other crops. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the intraspecific genetic variability of M. ethiopica isolates from Brazil and Chile using AFLP and RAPD markers and to develop a species‐specific SCAR‐PCR assay for its diagnosis. Fourteen isolates were obtained from different geographic regions or host plants. Three isolates of an undescribed Meloidogyne species and one isolate of M. ethiopica from Kenya were included in the analysis. The results showed a low level of diversity among the M. ethiopica isolates, regardless of their geographical distribution or host plant origin. The three isolates of Meloidogyne sp. showed a high homogeneity and clustered separately from M. ethiopica (100% bootstrap). RAPD screenings of M. ethiopica allowed the identification of a differential DNA fragment that was converted into a SCAR marker. Using genomic DNA from pooled nematodes as a template, PCR amplification with primers designed from this species‐specific SCAR produced a fragment of 350 bp in all 14 isolates of M. ethiopica tested, in contrast with other species tested. This primer pair also allowed successful amplification of DNA from single nematodes, either juveniles or females and when used in multiplex PCR reactions containing mixtures of other root‐knot nematode species, thus showing the sensitivity of the assay. Therefore, the method developed here has potential for application in routine diagnostic procedures.  相似文献   

7.
不同施氮量对杂交水稻纹枯病、紫鞘病及云形病的影响   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
近年来,随着化肥生产的迅速发展,稻田施氮量逐年增加。有些地区由于有机肥料的减少,不适当的增施化肥,出现“偏氮、偏多、偏晚”的三偏现象,从而导致水稻病害严重发生。本试验从氮肥这单一因子出发,在其他栽培措施相同的条件下,通过定位观察,系统调查,以探明不同施氮量以及无机氮肥与有机氮肥一定的配比,对杂交水稻纹枯病(Rhizoctonia solain)、紫鞘病(Acrocylindrium oryzae)和云形病(Rhycho-sporium oryzae)发生的影响。  相似文献   

8.
Abstract

In preliminary field tests in woodlands swamps of southern Morava, ?SSR, it was found that Abate 500E at the rate 0.1 g/m2 of water surfaces killed Aëdes vexans, A. cinereus and A. sticticus larvae 3 instar during 24 hours, but in other case at the rate 0.05 g/m2 of water surfaces killed not the A. vexans pupae.

In southern Morava, CSSR a new larvicide, Abate* was tested for Aëdes larvae and pupae control in the field. Abate (0,0,01,01 -tetramethyl 0,01 -thiodi-p-phenylene phosphorothioate) is an organophosphate insecticide that has been highly effective when tested against many different species of mosquito larvae. It is of very low toxicity to man and presents a minimum hazard in control. A well timed application of Abate will control the mosquito larva before it can develop into a pupa. Barnes and Webb (1968) applied one briquette of 0.58 g or 0.78 g/10 cu. ft. water in woodland pools, against Aëdes canadensis (Thio.). A. cantator (Coq.). A. vexans (Mg.) and Culex restuans Theo. Early spring treatment controlled all species as they normally appear in chronological sequence until early fall. One treatment of 6 pools gave excellent larval control throughout the 176-day test period; 23 pools were retreated on day 57, but this may have been unnecessary. No deleterious effects were noted on aquatic organisms. The US Department of Health and Welfare (1968) reports that 1% granules of Abate (0.002–0.06 lb/ac) satisfactorily kills A. vexans larvae. Lewis et al. (1965) applied 43% ec. and 1% granules of Abate (0.075 to 0.2 lb/ac; or 0.084 to 0.22 kg/ha) to log ponds. Both formulations gave excellent initial and residual (up to 18 days) control at dosages used. The e.c. seemed to act for a longer period. It was used for Culex peus Speiser, C. pipiens L., C. tarsalis (Coq.) and Culiseta larvae control.

In southern Morava Abate 500E, a 50% (W/v) emulsifiable concentrate containing 500 g a.i./l was tested in the woodland swamps – mosquito breeding places – against A. vexans, A. cinereus Mg. and A. sticticus (Mg.) instar larvae or A. vexans pupae.

In the first experiment 10g Abate 500E were used on 100 m2 of water surface, mixed with water at 1:100. The insecticide was applied on two sites and a third chosen as control. Larvae were counted from 250 ml samples from each site. Table 1 shows the average number of larvae from each site.  相似文献   

9.
Herbicide resistance in Lolium rigidum is widespread across much of the agricultural land in Australia. As the incidence of herbicide resistance has increased, so has the incidence of multiple herbicide resistance. This reduces the herbicide options available for control of this weed. This study reports on the successful amplification and sequencing of the acetolactate synthase (ALS) gene of L. rigidum using primers designed from sequence information of related taxa. This enables, for the first time, the successful determination of a mutation in the ALS gene of this species that provides resistance to ALS‐inhibiting herbicides. This mutation causes amino acid substitution at Trp574 (numbering standardised to Arabidopsis thaliana) to Leu which had been reported to confer a high level of resistance against all classes of ALS inhibitor herbicides. In addition, multiple resistance to ALS‐inhibiting and acetyl‐coenzyme A carboxylase‐inhibiting herbicides is acquired through the independent accumulation of mutant alleles for the target sites. This may thus explain some of the irregular, mosaic resistance patterns that occur in this predominantly outcrossing species.  相似文献   

10.
BACKGROUND: Recent studies have indicated that spinosad, a mixture of two tetracyclic macrolide compounds produced during the fermentation of a soil actinomycete, may be suitable for controlling a number of medically important mosquito species, including the dengue vector, Aedes aegypti L. The authors determined the effects of a 1 h exposure to a 50% lethal concentration (LC50) of spinosad in the larval stage on the wing length, longevity and reproductive capacity of the adult survivors. RESULTS: The LC50 of spinosad for a wild‐caught population of Ae. aegypti from Chiapas, southern Mexico, was estimated to be 0.06 mg AI L?1 in late third instars. Paradoxically, the female survivors of exposure to this concentration were significantly larger (as determined by wing length) laid more eggs, but were slightly less fertile than control females. This was probably due to elimination of the smaller and more susceptible fraction of mosquito larvae from the experimental population following spinosad treatment. Male survivors, in contrast, were significantly smaller than controls. No significant differences were detected in the adult longevity of treated and control insects of either sex. CONCLUSIONS: The increase in reproductive capacity of spinosad‐treated females did not compensate for mortality in the larval stage and would be unlikely to result in population increase in this mosquito under the conditions that were employed. Sustained‐release formulations would likely assist in minimizing the occurrence of sublethal concentrations of this naturally derived product in mosquito breeding sites. Copyright © 2008 Society of Chemical Industry  相似文献   

11.
The 1995/6 International Survey of Herbicide-Resistant Weeds recorded 183 herbicide-resistant weed biotypes (124 different species) in 42 countries. The increase in the number of new herbicide-resistant weeds has remained relatively constant since 1978, at an average of nine new cases per year worldwide. Whilst 61 weed species have evolved resistance to triazine herbicides, this figure now only accounts for one-third of all documented herbicide-resistant biotypes. Triazine-resistant weeds have been controlled successfully in many countries by the use of alternative herbicides. Due to the economic importance of ALS and ACCase inhibitor herbicides worldwide, and the ease with which weeds have evolved resistance to them, it is likely that ALS and ACCase inhibitor-resistant weeds will present farmers with greater problems in the next five years than triazine-resistant weeds have caused in the past 25 years. Thirty-three weed species have evolved resistance to ALS-inhibitor herbicides in 11 countries. ALS-inhibitor-resistant weeds are most problematic in cereal, corn/soybean and rice production. Thirteen weed species have evolved resistance to ACCase inhibitors, also in 11 countries. ACCase inhibitor resistance in Lolium and Avena spp. threatens cereal production in Australia, Canada, Chile, France, South Africa, Spain, the United Kingdom and the USA. Fourteen weed species have evolved resistance to urea herbicides. Isoproturon-resistant Phalaris minor infesting wheat fields in North West India and chlorotoluron-resistant Alopecurus myosuroides in Europe are of significant economic importance. Although 27 weed species have evolved resistance to bipyridilium herbicides, and 14 weed species have evolved resistance to synthetic auxins, the area infested and the availability of alternative herbicides have kept their impact minimal. The lack of alternative herbicides to control weeds with multiple herbicide resistance, such as Lolium rigidum and Alopecurus myosuroides, makes these the most challenging resistance problems. The recent discovery of glyphosate-resistant Lolium rigidum in Australia is a timely reminder that sound herbicide-resistant management strategies will remain important after the widespread adoption of glyphosate-resistant crops. ©1997 SCI  相似文献   

12.
球形芽孢杆菌（Bacillussphaericus）是一种对蚊幼虫有毒杀作用的好气芽孢杆菌。高毒力菌株在芽孢形成过程中能产生有51．4和41．9kDa蛋白组成的伴孢晶体。蚊幼虫取食芽孢／晶体混合物后,晶体蛋白被降解形成活性蛋白而结合到中肠上皮细胞的特异性结合位点上,最后导致蚊幼虫死亡;低毒力菌株和部分高毒力菌株在其营养体生长阶段可产生可溶性的100、30．5和38．5kDa的Mix毒素（Mtx1、Mtx2和Mix3）。该毒素同晶体毒素和其它杀虫毒素无同源性,其杀蚊作用机理不详。在实验室和野外长期高选择性压力下,蚊幼虫会通过中肠上皮细胞二元毒素特异性结合位点的改变而对球形芽孢杆菌产生不同水平的抗性,其抗性特性是由位于染色体上的单一隐性基因决定的。本文简述了球形芽孢杆菌的杀蚊毒素的作用方式及抗性蚊虫的抗性特性。  相似文献   

13.
Microsporidia in mosquitoes can be divided into two categories based on their life cycles and host-parasite relationships. Some species of microsporidia exhibit simple life cycles with one spore type responsible for oral (horizontal) transmission. They affect only one generation of the mosquito and are not usually host or tissue specific. Brachiola algerae and Vavraia culicis are examples of species isolated from mosquitoes with relatively straightforward life cycles (one spore type) and simple host-parasite relationships. B. algerae and a close relative of V. culicis have also been isolated from a vertebrate (human) host but sources for these infections are unknown. In contrast to B. algerae and V. culicis, polymorphic (heterosporous) microsporidia in mosquitoes are characterized by complex life cycles involving multiple spore types responsible for horizontal and vertical transmission. They affect two generations of the mosquito and some involve an obligate intermediate host. These microsporidia are generally very host and tissue specific with complex developmental sequences comprised of unique stages and events. The microsporidium Edhazardia aedis is a pathogen of Aedes aegypti and does not require an intermediate host. The developmental cycle of E. aedis is characterized by four sporulation sequences, two in the parental host and two in the filial generation. Recent speculation relative to the source of B. algerae human infection have implicated infected mosquitoes and raised concerns about the safety of mosquito microsporidia in general. The subject of this review is to compare and contrast three species of microsporidia from mosquitoes, two with broad host ranges (B. algerae and V. culicis) and one specific to mosquitoes (E. aedis). This review describes features that distinguish mosquito-parasitic microsporidia with simple life cycles and broad host ranges from truly mosquito-specific microsporidian parasites with complex life cycles.  相似文献   

14.
West Nile virus is becoming increasingly prevalent in the USA, causing fever, encephalitis, meningitis and many fatalities. Spread of the disease is reduced by controlling the mosquito vectors by a variety of means, including the use of pyrethroid insecticides, which are currently under scrutiny for potential carcinogenic effects in humans. Pyrethrins and resmethrin, a pyrethroid, have been shown to cause tumours in rat and mouse models respectively. However, the tumours appear to be caused by liver enzyme induction and hypertrophy rather than genotoxicity, and the results are therefore unlikely to be applicable to humans. Nonetheless, for resmethrin, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has concluded that there is a likely risk of carcinogenicity in humans, requiring the manufacturers to provide more detailed data to prove that it can be used safely in vector control. Reproductive toxicity of resmethrin in the rat is also discussed.  相似文献   

15.
Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeuschel is a dominant and infamous grass weed in the savannah of West Africa. Research to reduce the weed to non-damaging levels is a priority activity at many agricultural institutions. The successful development and implementation of long-term I. cylindrica management strategies depend on the ability to predict changes in weed composition after I. cylindrica has been controlled effectively. The weed flora and soil seedbank were assessed from 329 fields dominated by this species in the fringes of the humid forest (HFF), coastal/derived savannah (CDS) and in the southern Guinea savannah (SGS) in 1996 and 1997. The objectives of the study were to correlate species composition of the weed flora with that of the soil seedbank and to determine the effect of management factors and soil properties on the composition of the weed flora. Species richness in the weed flora and in the weed seedbank was higher in the SGS than in the CDS and HFF. Mean weed density per field was generally higher in the HFF (156 ± 25.0 weeds m–2) than in the CDS (108 ± 8.1 weeds m–2) and in the SGS (92 ± 6.3 weeds m–2). Weed composition varied with agroecological zone as well as with management factors and soil properties. Sørenson's index of similarity was low (mean=0.20) in all zones, indicating poor similarity between the weed flora above-ground and the soil seedbank.  相似文献   

16.
Increasingly, weeds have been taking on global distributions. With the proliferation of invasive weeds has come the challenge of managing these species over broad geographical regions, with diverse habitats and political jurisdictions. Here, we review the management of Mikania micrantha Kunth (Asteraceae; mile‐a‐minute) throughout its invaded range, extending through most of the Pacific islands and southern and south‐east Asia. Context matters when determining the best course of action for managing M. micrantha, as it has invaded a large variety of agricultural and natural systems. In Queensland, Australia and Florida, USA, M. micrantha has been targeted in relatively successful eradication campaigns, highlighting the importance of early detection and rapid response methods, while elsewhere in its invaded range, populations are either still increasing or showing limited signs of decline. An inter‐regional approach to research and management should incorporate successful management strategies employed throughout the invaded range including, but not limited to, chemical and cultural control practices, manual and mechanical control, classical biological control using the rust fungus Puccinia spegazzinii, plant–plant competition and integrated approaches utilising two or more control methods concurrently. Additional knowledge of M. micrantha genetics is required to determine if management approaches could be fine‐tuned for particular populations. Countries bordering the Mekong River formed a network in 2011 to co‐ordinate the management of invasive species such as M. micrantha. Expanding such a collaborative approach to other regions could further reduce populations of M. micrantha and limit its spread.  相似文献   

17.
F. BIN  R. BRUNI 《EPPO Bulletin》1997,27(1):53-59
Introduction of pests into Italy appears to be increasing. Between 1974 and 1994, 82 exotic insect species have been recorded as new to Italy, representing approximately four introductions per year, compared with one species per year up to the 1960s and two species per year in the 1980s. To combat these, and native, pests, 28 entomophagous species have been used in the last 20 years in classical biological control programmes. At the same time, 24 other species of entomophages have played a role in pest control without human intervention (i.e. fortuitous associations). There are examples of native and introduced entomophages acting fortuitously or in planned programmes on native or introduced pests. So far, none of the introduced entomophages appear to have caused any negative effects on the Italian ecosystem. However, because of increasing concerns about the possibility of such effects, there is a need to develop clear protocols covering entry and release of biological control agents.  相似文献   

18.
苏南地处我国东南沿海长江三角州中心.为明确该地蔬菜作物病毒病种类和发生趋势,采用分子生物学核酸检测的方法,对2018年5月至2019年12月,采自江苏南京、无锡、镇江、苏州和常州主要蔬菜作物的232份疑似病毒病样品进行检测鉴定,共检出12种病毒.其中,南京检出7种病毒,无锡检出4种,镇江检出2种,苏州检出6种,常州检出...  相似文献   

19.
Termite baiting is now one of the two main management tools in developed countries after 20 years of commercial release. It has two main goals: to use small amounts of active ingredient and ‘colony elimination’, i.e. death of all individuals in the colony. We consider how well baiting has been evaluated from 100 studies in the scientific literature. Studies have included 15 active ingredients, 23 termite species and 16 countries, yet most studies have focused on the chitin synthesis inhibitor hexaflumuron, Reticulitermes and the United States. Baiting has mostly met its goals: typically about 0.5 g of active ingredient was used, and colony elimination achieved, albeit with rates varying from 0 to 100%, and sometimes supplemented with liquid insecticide. Baiting was most successful using chitin synthesis inhibitors against Reticulitermes and Coptotermes (Rhinotermitidae), in temperate locations, although colony elimination was usually inferred indirectly – mostly by termite absence from baits – and was often slow, from 25 to 450 days. Baiting has been less tested and less successful against higher termites in tropical locations, where they are most diverse and abundant. Future research may have to consider greater termite species diversity and other active ingredients to reduce control times in order to fulfil the potential of baiting. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry  相似文献   

20.
The occurrence of Fusarium species in winter wheat in southern Belgium (Wallonia) and the deoxynivalenol content in 692 samples collected in commercial fields in the region’s main cereal growing area were investigated. The main Fusarium species associated with head blight in wheat were identified at levels that varied from year to year. Interactions between fungal species causing head blight in wheat were detected, most of them positive. The years 2007 and 2008 were very conducive to the disease and there was a strong correlation between mean annual deoxynivalenol content and number of days with a mean relative humidity above 80% over a period starting from 7 days before the mean flowering date and ending 16 days after this date. A two-stage approach, based on type of year (at risk or not) and agricultural practices during risk years has been developed to help cereal storage companies reduce the risk of mixing sound and deoxynivalenol-contaminated lots at harvest and to limit the number of analyses.  相似文献   

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