首页 | 本学科首页   官方微博 | 高级检索  
相似文献
 共查询到20条相似文献，搜索用时 31 毫秒
1.
Recently, European wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) populations have undergone a sharp decline that may be exacerbated by hunting. We investigate the effects of the timing of hunting on the conservation of wild rabbit using a model for rabbit population dynamics. Scenarios with different hunting rates and age strategies were simulated for different population qualities. We interviewed hunters to ascertain the degree to which they would accept a change in the timing of hunting. We also investigated the hunting pressure applied by hunters and its relationship with rabbit abundance. Modelling results indicate that the current hunting season has the greatest impact on rabbit abundance. Hunting in late spring optimises hunting extraction while conserving rabbit populations. When the rabbit population quality is low the effects of age strategies and the timing of hunting are less important than the effect of the hunting rate applied. Almost half the hunters would agree to policy changes. More than 75% of hunters implemented self-imposed hunting restrictions to improve rabbit populations, that were more frequently applied in high rabbit abundance areas. Therefore, changing the timing of hunting and increasing the participation of hunters in low abundance areas could optimise both the exploitation and the conservation of wild rabbit populations in southwestern Europe.  相似文献   

2.
Flying fox fruit bats are hunted in an annual 2-month season in Niue, a small and isolated South Pacific island nation. The sustainability of this hunt has been questioned because of an obvious recent decline. We estimated the island-wide flying fox population to be between 2040 and 4080 bats, 2 months prior to the 1998-1999 hunt. Sixty hunters interviewed after the hunt had shot 1555 bats, an unsustainable number. Many Niueans believe that an infinite quantity of flying foxes live in two small taboo or forbidden areas that originally acted as wildlife sanctuaries to safeguard animal resources for times of famine. However, our surveys suggest only a small colony roosts in one taboo area. Niueans' belief that taboo areas shelter an unlimited number of bats cannot be refuted as the areas may not be visited. Consequently, few people believe that the population is being overharvested.  相似文献   

3.
The arctic fox population in Fennoscandia is on the verge of going extinct after not being able to recover from a severe bottleneck at the end of the 19th century. The Siberian arctic fox population, on the other hand, is large and unthreatened. In order to resolve questions regarding gene flow between, and genetic variation within the populations, a 294 bp long part of the mitochondrial hypervariable region 1 was sequenced. This was done for 17 Swedish, 15 Siberian and two farmed foxes. Twelve variable nucleotide sites were observed, which resulted in 10 different haplotypes. Three haplotypes were found in Sweden and seven haplotypes were found in Siberia. An analysis of molecular variance showed a weak, but significant, differentiation between the populations. No difference in haplotype diversity was found between the populations. A phylogenetic analysis revealed that the three Swedish haplotypes were not monophyletic compared to the Siberian haplotypes. These results indicate a certain amount of gene flow between the two populations, both before and after the bottleneck. Restocking the Fennoscandian population with arctic foxes from Siberia might therefore be a viable option.  相似文献   

4.
Island fox (Urocyon littoralis) populations on four California Channel Islands have declined severely since 1994. Canine distemper (CDV) was suspected to be responsible for the decline of the Santa Catalina Island fox, so knowledge of infectious disease exposure in the remaining island fox populations was urgently needed. This study reviewed previous pathogen exposure in island foxes and investigated the current threat by conducting a serologic survey of foxes on all islands and sympatric feral cats on three islands from 2001 to 2003 for antibodies against canid pathogens. Before the decline, foxes had evidence of exposure to CDV, canine adenovirus (CAV), canine parvovirus (CPV), and Toxoplasma, with exposure to these five pathogens differing greatly by island. Exposure to canine coronavirus (CCV), canine herpesvirus (CHV), and Leptospira was rare. In 2001-2003, wild-born foxes had evidence of exposure to CDV (5.2-32.8%) on 5 of 6 islands, CPV (28-100%) and CAV (4.7-100%) on five islands, and Toxoplasma gondii (2.3-15.4%) on four islands. Exposure to CCV, CHV and Leptospira was less common. Sharing of infectious agents between sympatric foxes and feral cats appeared minimal, but CDV exposure was detected in two cats on Santa Catalina Island. Domestic dogs have historically been present on the islands, but it is not known if canine diseases can be maintained in fox populations without the continual presence of dogs. Targeted vaccination programs against the most virulent pathogens and continued intensive disease surveillance may help protect the critically small remaining fox populations from disease outbreaks that could threaten the success of ongoing conservation efforts.  相似文献   

5.
Excessive hunting pressure, due in large part to commercialization, has reduced the populations of many tropical large mammal species. Wildlife over-exploitation is severe in Indonesia, especially on Sulawesi, where human resources and funding are inadequate to monitor the wildlife trade and enforce existing protection laws. In response, the Wildlife Crimes Unit program was established in December 2001 to: (i) monitor wildlife transportation into North Sulawesi and market sales; (ii) provide legal and technical support to law enforcement agencies; and (iii) promote public awareness of wildlife and protection laws. Over a two-year period, 6963 wild mammals en route to markets were encountered (∼8 individuals h−1) and 96,586 wild mammals were documented during market surveys. The trade of some protected mammals declined significantly over this period, but overall trade in wild mammals increased by 30%. High volume of trade in non-protected animals such as the Sulawesi pig Sus celebensis and large flying foxes (Pteropodidae), raise concerns about the sustainability of current harvesting. To combat this problem, we recommend that: (1) efforts are continued to reduce trade in protected species; (2) protected status is extended to heavily traded but non-protected taxa, such as flying foxes; (3) the effects of hunting on rat and bat populations, as well as its impact on forest dynamics, are quantified; and (4) work is carried out with local communities to strengthen awareness, set sustainable limits on wild mammal harvesting, and establish practical mechanisms for enforcing these limits.  相似文献   

6.
Swift foxes (Vulpes velox) were once common prairie inhabitants throughout western North America and were integral components within ecosystems and some Native American tribal cultures. In response to extirpation from tribal lands, the Blackfeet Tribe and Defenders of Wildlife reintroduced 123 captive-raised swift foxes from 1998 to 2002 to the Blackfeet Indian Reservation, Montana, USA. We used two success criteria, a population growth rate ?1.0 and an index count ?100 foxes, to determine if the reintroduction was a short-term success.We radiocollared and monitored swift foxes from 2003 to 2005 to estimate survival and fecundity. The swift fox population grew at a rate of 16% during 2003/2004 and 14% in 2004/2005. In addition, field crews observed 93 foxes in the summer of 2005.The swift fox population reached one, and very nearly both, of our short-term success criteria. In light of swift fox sign in areas where we were unable to observe foxes despite being aware of their presence, we believe there were ?100 foxes present in 2005. Based on our success criteria and the discovery of swift foxes 110 km from the release site, we consider this reintroduction a short-term success with promise for long-term success. The Blackfeet Tribe and Defenders of Wildlife have attained their goal of restoring a culturally important species to Tribal lands and have initiated a comeback of swift foxes beyond the Reservation border to the Rocky Mountain Front in Montana. Collaborative projects between tribes and non-governmental groups can play a vital role in our effort to conserve biologically and culturally significant species.  相似文献   

7.
Arctic fox Alopex lagopus dens in Norway are mostly large and well-defined structures of great age. Examinations of these dens have been used in surveys of the breeding and population status of the arctic fox in Fennoscandia. In this study, dens all over north Norway and in some parts of south Norway were surveyed (n=214), and several aspects of den characteristics, localisation and use were recorded. Red fox Vulpes vulpes dens were also recorded whenever found, including red fox use of arctic fox dens (total n=211). Most of the arctic fox dens were of the “classic” type dug out in sandy soil (n=210). The average number (±1 SD) of open entrances (at least half open) was 27.4±19.0, and the average size was 363.1±288.7 m2. Regional variation was found in both these measurements, as well as in two variables classifying the vegetation at the den. However, no consistent south-north gradient was found, although the most southern and the most northern regions were extremes in several respects. A positive correlation was found between den size and the number of entrances, as well as between these two variables and the two vegetation variables. For each arctic fox den, height above the tree line, distance to the tree line, distance between arctic fox dens, distance to the nearest red fox den, distance to a main road and distance to other human activity were estimated. Regional variation was found in all these variables, but no consistent south-north gradient. Again, the most southern region deviated most. There were large differences in the proportion of dens used by arctic foxes between the nine regions, with one region outstanding in its production of arctic fox litters and paucity of red foxes. The proportion sum of arctic fox entrances to sum of red fox entrances reliably, but not perfectly, identified the best arctic fox regions. Arctic fox dens that were known to have produced litters at least once during 1980-2001 had about twice as many entrances as dens without pups, were 32% larger and had a more lush vegetation. They were also situated further from a red fox den. Distance to red fox dens and height above the tree line were the most important factors regarding arctic fox use of dens. Thus, the red fox was identified as a threat to the arctic fox population.  相似文献   

8.
Hunting of individuals from a population can affect its demography and socio-spatial parameters. This study provided opportunities to assess such effects, and may help to improve the conservation of populations threatened by conflict and over-use. We treated the periods before and after a moratorium on the trophy hunting of lions around Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, as a quasi-experimental opportunity to examine changes in lion socio-spatial behaviour during and after perturbation. Changes in ranging behaviour coincided with the release from heavy mortality from hunting outside the Park and were likely to be due to changes in the perturbation regime, rather than factors such as prey abundance, which did not change over the study period. Lion home range sizes decreased in both sexes after the moratorium. Overlap between groups decreased in males but increased in females. Variation in home range size reduced both annually and seasonally for both sexes. Home range centres became more closely distributed. Lions increased the use of denser vegetation cover classes (>30%) and decreased the use of open cover classes (10–30%). Lions increased the use of areas within 2–5 km of water, and decreased their use of the >20 km class. Perturbation therefore appeared to influence the socio-spatial behavior of the lion population. Managers considering the use of moratoria as a conservation tool must anticipate changes in the behavior and distribution of the target species.  相似文献   

9.
Harvesting, consumption and trade of bushmeat are important causes of both biodiversity loss and potential zoonotic disease emergence. In order to identify possible ways to mitigate these threats, it is essential to improve our understanding of the mechanisms by which bushmeat gets from the site of capture to the consumer’s table. In this paper we highlight the previously unrecognized scale of hunting of the African straw-colored fruit bat, Eidolon helvum, a species which is important in both ecological and public health contexts, and describe the commodity chain in southern Ghana for its trade. Based on interviews with 551 Ghanaians, including bat hunters, vendors and consumers, we estimate that a minimum of 128,000 E. helvum bats are sold each year through a commodity chain stretching up to 400 km and involving multiple vendors. Unlike the general bushmeat trade in Ghana, where animals are sold in both specialized bushmeat markets and in restaurants, E. helvum is sold primarily in marketplaces; many bats are also kept by hunters for personal consumption. The offtake estimated in this paper raises serious conservation concerns, while the commodity chain identified in this study may offer possible points for management intervention. The separation of the E. helvum commodity chain from that of other bushmeat highlights the need for species-specific research in this area, particularly for bats, whose status as bushmeat is largely unknown.  相似文献   

10.
Several predator species at risk of extinction in Southwestern Europe are dependent on the population density of European wild rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus. Rabbit populations in the region, however, have recently undergone dramatic decreases in population density, which may be exacerbated by hunting. Current hunting policies set the autumn-winter season, just before the start of rabbit reproduction, as the main hunting season, and previous theoretical models have estimated that the current hunting season may have the greatest negative impact on rabbit abundance and should be changed. We utilised a model for rabbit population dynamics to determine the effects of the timing of hunting during two seasons, summer and autumn, on the tendency of rabbit populations to be over-harvested and on the number of rabbits hunted. This model included field estimates of age- and sex-selection biases of hunting by shotgun. Scenarios with different hunting rates and sex- and age-selection probabilities of hunting were simulated for populations with different turnover levels and with and without compensatory mortality mechanisms. Field estimations showed that hunting in summer was juvenile-biased whereas autumn hunting was juvenile- and male-biased. In contrast to previous findings, our modelling results suggested that hunting in autumn may be the most conservative option for harvesting of rabbit populations, since these populations were more prone to be over-harvested during the summer. The differences between the two seasons in number of rabbits hunted were dependent on population dynamics and hunting sex- and age-selection probabilities. Our findings suggest that altering of current hunting policies would not optimise the exploitation or conservation of wild rabbit populations, but that the latter may be improved by some changes in the timing of hunting.  相似文献   

11.
Since the 1800s, brocket deer have been an important source of meat and income for subsistence and professional hunters in the Peruvian Amazon. Today, local people continue to hunt brocket deer for subsistence meat and for sale in local meat markets. Although brocket deer are not hunted as frequently as peccaries, they make a significant contribution to rural household economies. This study assessed the sustainability of hunting of brocket deer by local communities in the Tamshiyacu Tahuayo Communal Reserve (TTCR), northeastern Peru. We analyzed data from 1991 to 1999 using density comparisons, hunting pressures, an age structure model, and a harvest model comparing results between heavily hunted, slightly hunted, and non-hunted sites. The four approaches agreed that brocket deer are harvested sustainably. The sustainability of brocket deer hunting will depend on the continued presence of other valuable wildlife species (e.g. peccaries and large rodents), which are more preferred due to their ease of hunting and higher rates of encounters. Gross productivity indicates that brocket deer are showing resilience in the form of density dependent reproductive adjustments in the TTCR, but they may still be vulnerable to overhunting. Consequently, current levels of harvesting may be continued until further ecological and biological information on the species' population trends assist in defining more reliable sustainable offtake levels.  相似文献   

12.
We evaluated whether a collar-worn pounce protector, the CatBib™, reduces the number of vertebrates caught by pet cats and whether its effectiveness was influenced by colour or adding a bell. Fifty-six cats identified as hunters were studied in Perth, Australia over six weeks in November/December 2005 (southern hemisphere spring/summer). Cats spent three weeks wearing a device and three weeks without it and we recorded the number of prey brought home during each period.Cats caught 65 birds (13 species), 67 herpetofauna (11 species) and 164 mammals (five species). Alone or together with bells CatBibs stopped 81% of cats from catching birds, 33% from catching herpetofauna and 45% from catching mammals. Cats wearing CatBibs or CatBibs and bells caught only 25% of all birds, 43% of all herpetofauna and 36% of all mammals captured. Both colours were equally effective. Adding bells conferred no additional protection. Only one cat did not adjust to the CatBib and there was no long-term evidence that CatBibs altered cats’ fighting or wandering behaviour.Owners volunteered because of one or more of: environmental concern (81%), curiosity (38%), personal (35%) or family (24%) distress caused by hunting. Most owners (70%) said they would continue to use CatBibs although only 17% were doing so eight months later because some cats had stopped hunting or lost their CatBibs. Although confinement of pet cats is the complete solution to preventing predation on wildlife, deterrents such as the CatBib are effective if used consistently.  相似文献   

13.
Due to its practical relevance to conservation, considerable efforts have been devoted to understanding the effects of logging on orangutan (Pongo spp.) population densities. Despite these efforts, consistent patterns have yet to emerge. We conducted orangutan nest surveys and measured forest quality and disturbance level at 108 independent locations in 22 distinct sites in the forests of the Berau and East Kutai regencies of East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Survey locations varied substantially in orangutan density, forest structure, distance to villages, and logging intensity. We incorporated site-specific nest tree composition into our estimates of nest decay rates to reduce errors associated with inter-site differences in nest tree selection. Orangutan nest densities were uncorrelated with altitude, fig density, or any other ecological measure. Multivariate analyses demonstrated that densities were not significantly affected by logging intensity (at the relatively light levels we report here) or the distance to the nearest village, but were positively correlated with the distance from the nearest village known to hunt orangutans. These results indicate that provided hunting is absent, lightly to moderately degraded forests retain high conservation value for orangutans. Widespread incorporation of degraded areas into management plans for orangutan populations would substantially increase the size of populations that could be protected, and thereby improve their changes for long-term survival.  相似文献   

14.
A decline in numbers of a large common toad (Bufo bufo) population in south-east England during the 1990s, together with anecdotal reports of similar trends in other toad populations, prompted a nation-wide survey of this species. The survey also included the common frog (Rana temporaria) as a control for which there was no comparable evidence of recent decline. A questionnaire requesting information on the fate of toad and frog populations in the last 15 years of the 20th century was distributed to professional and amateur herpetologists during autumn 2001. Ninety-five respondents provided data on a total of 277 sites, including 232 frog and 202 toad populations in England, Scotland and Wales. More than 80% of the reported sites were rural for both species. Rural frog populations were generally doing well in most parts of Britain, with almost as many increasing as decreasing populations and a high proportion of stable populations. Rural toads also showed no overall trend across the country as a whole. However, regional analysis indicated that although toads were faring at least as well as frogs in the north and west of Britain, they were declining seriously in central and eastern/south-eastern areas. In these regions 50% or more of toad populations have experienced recent declines, whereas frogs have fared as well as they have elsewhere. Toads breeding alone have fared significantly worse than toads breeding at sites where frogs were also present. Reasons for apparently toad-specific declines in lowland England remain unknown.  相似文献   

15.
Despite evidence that domestic sheep diseases threaten the persistence of bighorn sheep populations, the economic consequences of restricting domestic sheep grazing has polarized the debate, with some arguing that disease risk posed by domestic sheep has been exaggerated and grazing restrictions should be eased. We constructed a model to assess how different management strategies (grazing allotment closures, grazing time reductions, and reduced probability of stray domestic sheep) affect the risk of respiratory disease transmission from domestic sheep to endangered Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep, and to predict population-level impacts of an outbreak. Even when management strategies reduced risk of interspecies contact to less than 2% per year, our model predicted a 50% probability of a catastrophic respiratory disease outbreak during the next 10 bighorn sheep generations. If an outbreak occurs in the near future, the model predicts that the smallest Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep population would have a 33% probability of quasi-extinction. To eliminate all risk of contact and potential disease transmission, domestic sheep cannot be grazed on allotments that overlap with areas utilized by Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep. Where wildlife and domestic animal populations share limited habitat, and there is documented evidence of a substantial disease threat and extinction risk, stakeholders must recognize that the only way to eliminate contact and risk of disease transmission is to give priority to one species or the other. If conservation is the priority, difficult decisions will need to be made to balance trade-offs between economic livelihoods and species conservation.  相似文献   

16.
In this study we compare estimates of the long-term mean stochastic population growth rates, E[r] for Petrogale xanthopus xanthopus (yellow-footed rock-wallaby), a threatened Australian species. In fluctuating environments such as semi-arid areas, herbivore populations respond directly to changes in the biomass of food resources. Biomass is generally correlated with rainfall, so it is often useful to model annual population growth rates of herbivores directly with rainfall. Models of this nature are referred to as numerical response models. The factors that are thought to threaten this species include competition from introduced herbivores and predation from foxes. Annual aerial survey data collected from 1997 to 2004 over approximately 600 km of transect line were analyzed in seven zones within South Australia. Using the Ivlev numerical response model, the annual population growth rates were found to correlate best with the rain that fell in the seven-month period immediately prior to the surveys. Not surprisingly, positive growth rates were found to be associated with higher rainfalls in this period, while negative growth rates were associated with lower rainfalls. We also used weighted bootstrapping to calculate confidence intervals around our estimates of long-term mean stochastic population growth rates, E[r]. The findings suggest that the estimates of E[r] are positive in areas where there is fox and herbivore management. However, we found no evidence that this species will decline in the absence of these treatments.  相似文献   

17.
The red kite (Milvus milvus) occurs in a relatively small area in the southwestern Palearctic region, with population strongholds in Central Europe. Following strong human persecutions at the beginning of the 20th century, populations have receded, particularly in peripheral areas and islands. In order to describe and compare levels of genetic diversity and phylogeographic patterns throughout its entire distribution in Europe, sequence variation of a 357 bps part of the mitochondrial DNA control region was assessed in eight populations and 105 individuals. Overall, results indicate that population declines have affected red kite mtDNA variation. We found low levels of genetic diversity (values of nucleotide diversity ranging from 0 in Majorca island to 0.0062 in Central Europe), with only 10 distinct haplotypes, separated by low levels of genetic divergence (mean sequence divergence = 0.75%). Highest haplotype and nucleotide diversities match with demographic expectations, and were found in Central European and Central Spanish samples, where present strongholds occur, and lowest values in the declining southern Spanish and insular samples. Φst estimates indicated moderate gene flow between populations. Phylogeographic patterns and mismatch distributions analyses suggest central European regions may have been colonized from southern glacial refugia (in the Italian or Iberian peninsulas). Interspecific phylogenetic comparisons and divergence date estimates indicated the genetic split between the red kite and its closely related species, the black kite (Milvus migrans), might be relatively recent. The low level of genetic variation found in the red kite mitochondrial control region, compared to the black kite, is likely the result of relatively recent divergence (associated with founder events), successive bottlenecks and small population sizes. As there are several ongoing projects aimed at reinforcing populations in countries such as the United Kingdom, Italy or Spain, our results may prove useful for the genetic management of the species.  相似文献   

18.
Most tropical forest landscapes are modified by humans, but the effects of these changes on rural hunting patterns and hunted vertebrate populations remain poorly understood. We investigated subsistence hunting patterns across a highly heterogeneous landscape mosaic in the Brazilian Amazon, where hunters from three villages had access to primary forest, active and fallow agricultural fields, and active and fallow Eucalyptus plantations. Landscape composition and the areas used by hunters were defined using a remote-sensing approach combined with mapping. We quantified hunting effort accounting for the availability and spatial distribution of each habitat. Overall, 71% of the kills were sourced in primary forest, but hunting in primary forest, which was often combined with other extractive activities (such as Brazil nut harvesting), yielded the lowest catch-per-unit-effort of all habitats. Hunting effort per unit area was highest in fallow fields, followed by primary forest, and both of these habitats were over-represented within village hunting catchments when compared to the composition of the available landscape. Active and fallow fields sourced a limited number of species known to be resilient to hunting, but hunting had additional benefits through crop-raider control. In contrast, hunting pressure in active and fallow plantations was low, despite a high catch-per-unit-effort, presumably because there were limited additional benefits from visiting these habitats. These results indicate that large-scale tree plantation and forest regeneration schemes have limited conservation potential for large vertebrates, as they support few forest specialists and fail to attract hunters away from primary forest.  相似文献   

19.
Capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) are the world’s largest rodent. Free-living populations are commercially harvested for their meat and leather in Colombia, Venezuela and Argentina; however, there is concern that legal and illegal harvesting is not sustainable. Since capybaras are considered an economic resource, there have been several attempts to explore the effect of different hunting strategies on its population dynamics. Two previous population models have been developed with this goal; however neither included capybara social behavior that may affect population dynamics. We developed an age-structured, density-dependent model of capybara herd dynamics to explore the demographic consequences of different hunting strategies. We then added infanticide and female reproductive suppression to explore the demographic consequences of such behavior. We conducted five different simulations and used ANOVA to estimate the effect of hunting females, hunting males, hunting both males and females, and the independent effects of reproductive suppression and infanticide on population size after 50 years. Our model suggests that suppression has the largest effect on population size, followed by hunting females and males hunting, female hunting, male hunting and infanticide. Thus, to develop more realistic harvesting models, managers should determine the degree of reproductive suppression and the frequency of infanticide by males.  相似文献   

20.
Declines in forest and woodland birds have largely been attributed to habitat loss and fragmentation. In the past decade, however, the potential for herbivores to influence bird species abundance and community composition via their direct impact on vegetation structure has also been recognised. We tested the hypothesis that deer influence vegetation structure and bird assemblages in a large island archipelago in western North America using surveys of 18 islands with deer densities ranging from 0 to over 1 deer/ha. Amongst these islands, reduced predation and hunting pressure has allowed deer populations to increase above those likely to have existed in pre-European times. Our results support a growing body of evidence that deer regulate both the cover and architecture of understory vegetation which in turn profoundly affects island bird assemblages. Deer-free islands supported the most abundant and diverse bird fauna. Iconic songbirds such as the rufous hummingbird, song and fox sparrow were abundant on islands with no deer but substantially reduced on islands with high deer densities. Only one bird species, the dark-eyed junco, preferred moderate and high density deer islands. Our observations suggest that current cohorts of palatable shrubs on islands with high deer densities are relatively old and potentially represent an impending extinction debt, where the full effects of high deer density on island biota may take decades to fully unfold. Our results suggest that deer densities below a threshold of 0.1 deer/ha should allow native vegetation to recover and a rich and diverse bird species assemblage to persist. We suggest that adaptive management be used to test the validity of this threshold, and that without active management of deer abundance, local extinctions of native flora and fauna appear likely to accelerate.  相似文献   

设为首页 | 免责声明 | 关于勤云 | 加入收藏

Copyright©北京勤云科技发展有限公司  京ICP备09084417号