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1.
The integration of forage crops in an alley-cropped system was examined as a method of encouraging tree planting to increase
farm income, improve soil quality, and enhance biodiversity on Midwestern U.S. farms. Crop and tree performance were evaluated
in an alley-cropped system using four forage intercrops grown in tree alleyways to simulate a potential hay crop – oat (Avena sativa L.) and red clover (Trifolium pratense L.); oat, red clover, and red fescue (Festuca rubra L.); oat, red clover, and orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.); and oat and hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth) – compared to a herbicide, mowing and control (no management) treatment. Five tree species, divided into fast-growing
hardwoods of two poplar (Populus spp.) clones [Crandon (P. alba L. × P. grandidentata Michx.) and Eugenei (P. deltoids Bartr. × P. nigra L.)], and silver maple (Acer saccharinum L.) were compared with two high-value, slow-growing hardwoods planted from seed and as seedlings: red oak (Quercus rubra L.) and black walnut (Juglans nigra L.). Tree survival in the first year was greater for the fast-growing species, and by the fourth year, tree height among
the four forage treatments was equivalent for all upland locations. The oat/hairy vetch ground cover was associated with the
shortest trees in the bottomland site. Herbicide-treated trees were taller than the average of the four forage treatments
for all four planting conditions. Tree height in the mowing and the control treatments was not significantly different for
all four planting conditions. The nutritive value of the forage crop was excellent in the second year of tree establishment,
with crude protein content and digestibility at 17 and 71%, respectively, in the oat/red clover/red fescue treatment, suggesting
the viability of forage crops as alternatives to herbicides in alley-cropped systems. 相似文献
2.
Durability of selected mulches,their ability to control weeds,and influence growth of loblolly pine seedlings 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
Several mulches of natural, synthetic, or blends of natural and synthetic fibers were tested around newly planted loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) seedlings on a sheared and windrowed site in central Louisiana, USA. The vegetation was primarily winter annuals, some residual grasses and forbs, and sparse woody regrowth. Study 1 was rotary mowed just prior to planting in March 1992, and 35 mulches and an untreated check were established. In Study 2, 15 mulches and an untreated check were established in a 1-year-old rough in March 1993. In both studies, a single loblolly pine seedling formed each plot established in a randomized complete block design, with 10 blocks as replicates. Each block was planted with a separate open-pollinated loblolly pine family.Nearly all mulches had deteriorated to some extent after three growing seasons. Synthetic mulches were generally more durable than the natural or natural/synthetic mulches. Mulching eliminated the established vegetation and germinants, and vegetation did not readily reestablish following the deterioration of a mulch. The soil seed bank apparently was not sufficient to regenerate areas that were once covered with mulch and many of the natural materials deteriorated into a fibrous cover that acted like a natural litter layer. Both of these residual weed control effects -- insufficient soil seed bank and formation of a fibrous cover -- were important in stopping vegetation from reestablishing after a mulch had deteriorated. After three growing seasons, the loblolly pine seedlings generally grew better if mulches were used. 相似文献
3.
Woody and herbaceous vegetation that captures scarce soil moisture often kills or stunts the growth of conifer seedlings in young plantations in the Sierra Nevada of California. Two methods for excluding this vegetation are to apply large (3-m×3-m), long-lasting (at least 5 years) mulches around the seedlings soon after planting, or to repeatedly grub seedlings of competing vegetation in study plots. Both techniques were tested and proved to be effective, significantly increasing ponderosa pine diameter and height relative to the control and to seedlings surrounded by small paper mulches. The effective treatments were large enough to enable conifer seedlings to capture site resources unimpeded by competing plants. Eight species of shrubs, seventeen forbs, four grasses, and one fern grew naturally on the study site.Results suggest that the forester now has two biologically effective means for controlling unwanted vegetation and for attaining rapid early pine growth in environments similar to the study area. Although more expensive, the large heavy polyester mulches ($9.90 per seedling over 5 years) give the forester an alternative to manual release ($2.05 per seedling over 5 years). 相似文献
4.
Li Shan-wen Zhang Zhiyi He Cheng-zhong An Xin-min Yu Zhi-shui Li Bai-lian 《中国林学(英文版)》2005,7(3):61-69
Twenty-five species and hybrids in Populus were used as parents, and 26 cross combinations, including more than 5 000 seedlings, were obtained by artificial cross breeding.
The length of infructescence, number of seeds per infructescence, thousand-seed weight, germination rate of seeds among these
cross combinations were tested. The results indicated that the cross combinational effects were significant for these traits,
and demonstrated that the length of infructescence, thousand-seed weight were positively affected by female parent. In addition,
seedling height, diameter above ground, diameter at breast height (DBH) of 17 cross combination progenies were investigated.
The analysis of mean and standard deviation of these three traits showed that seedling height, diameter above ground, DBH
had extensive variation among combinations and individuals within combination. Variance analysis and estimate of heritability
indicated that the three traits had wide variation and were controlled by heredity. It was feasible to select superior cross
combinations and seedlings. Further more, the result of multiple comparison showed that P. deltoides ‘Lux’ × P. deltoides ‘D324’, P. ussuriensis cl. ‘U4’ × P. deltoides ‘T66’, P. ussuriensis cl. ‘U4’ × P. deltoides ‘T26’, P. deltoides ‘Lux’ × P. ussuriensis cl. ‘U3’, (P. tomentosa × P. bolleana) × (P. alba × P. glandulosa), (P. alba × P. tomentosa) × (P. alba × P. glandulosa), and (P. alba × P. glandulosa ‘No. 2’) × P. tomentosa ‘Lumao 50’ were superior cross combinations with higher growth rate. Finally, 123 elite seedlings were selected for further
test.
[Supported by the Doctoral Foundation of Ministry of Education (Grant No. 200220022004) and the National “863” Project (Grant
No. 2002AA241071)] 相似文献
5.
为了解不同覆盖物对红松播种苗床土壤日蒸发量、土壤表层温度和种子出苗率及幼苗生长的影响,开展了不同覆盖物红松播种试验.结果 表明:不同覆盖物下土壤日蒸发量由大到小依次为CK、河沙、草炭土、松针、锯末和豆秸;河沙覆盖的土壤表层温度最高,其次是松针覆盖,豆秸覆盖的最低,锯末和草炭土覆盖下的土壤温度两者相差不大;松针、草炭土、... 相似文献
6.
The influence of woody and herbaceous plant competition, either alone or in combination, on microclimate and growth of planted eastern white pine (Pinus strobus L.) seedlings was examined over four consecutive growing seasons in a central Ontario clearcut. Treatments that manipulated the comparative abundance of these two plant functional groups significantly affected light availability, soil moisture, and air and soil temperature regimes. These microclimate alterations, coupled with the relative competitiveness of herbaceous and woody vegetation, corresponded to temporal changes in vegetation cover and dominance. The more rapid colonization and growth of the herbaceous plant community, dominated by bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) and ericaceous shrubs (Kalmia sp., Vaccinium sp.), resulted in this form of vegetation being a comparatively important early competitor for soil moisture. As the woody plant community, dominated by naturally regenerated trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.), grew in height and leaf area, it became a comparatively strong competitor for both light and soil moisture. For all vegetation treatments combined, white pine seedling growth responses were strongly correlated with total cover of competing vegetation and its relative influence on above- and belowground microclimatic variables. Higher total cover of competing vegetation was generally associated with lower light and soil moisture availability and cooler soil temperatures. Multiple regression analyses indicated that pine seedling relative height growth increased with soil moisture content and growing season soil heat sum, while seedling relative diameter and relative volume growth increased with light availability. 相似文献
7.
Under artificially-simulated complex salt-alkali stress, the levels of active oxygen metabolism in roots were studied using three-year-old cutting seedlings of Spiraea × bumalda ’Gold Mound’ and Spiraea × bumalda ’Gold Flame’. The present study aimed at exploring the antioxidant capacity in roots of spiraeas and revealing their adaptability to salt-alkali stress. Results indicate that the oxygen free radicals contents, electrolyte leakage rates and MDA contents in roots of Spiraea × bumalda ’Gold Mound’ and Spiraea × bumalda ’Gold Flame’ show an increasing tendency with the increases of the salinity and pH value, whereas the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD) and catalase (CAT) all increased firstly and then decreased. With the increase in intensity of salt-alkali stress, the CAT activity in roots of Spiraea × bumalda ’Gold Flame’ is higher and the increasing extents in the oxygen free radicals contents, electrolyte leakage rates as well as MDA contents are lower compared with Spiraea × bumalda ’Gold Mound’, indicating that Spiraea × bumalda ’Gold Flame’ has a stronger antioxidant capacity. 相似文献
8.
Thirty forages, including eight introduced cool-season grasses, four native warm-season grasses, one introduced warm-season
grass, eight introduced cool-season legumes, five native warm-season legumes, and four introduced warm-season legumes, were
grown in 7.6 L (two gallon) pots in full sun, 50%, and 80% shade created by shade cloth over a greenhouse frame. Experiments
were conducted during summer--fall 1994, spring--early summer 1995, and summer--fall 1995. A complete randomized experimental
design was used and above ground dry weight was measured in each shade environment. Tukey's studentized range test was used
to compare mean dry weights (MDW) within a species. Warm-season grasses displayed significant reductions in MDW under shade
regardless of growing season. All cool-season forages grown during spring--early summer showed a decrease in MDW under shade;
however, the reductions in dry weights of ‘Benchmark’ and ‘Justus’ orchardgrass, ‘KY 31’ tall fescue, Desmodium canescens
and D. paniculatum were not significant under 50% shade. Cool-season grasses showed more shade tolerance when grown during
the summer--fall than when grown during the spring--early summer. Seven of the selected cool-season grasses grown during the
summer--fall did not display significant reductions in MDW under 50% shade as compared to full sun. Smooth bromegrass grown
under 50% shade showed a significantly increased MDW production compared to growth in full sun. With the exception of Justus
orchardgrass and smooth bromegrass, growth of cool-season grasses was inhibited at 80% shade. Among the legumes harvested
during the fall, the dry weights of both Desmodium species tested and hog peanut (Amphicarpaea bracteata L.) increased significantly
under 50% and 80% shade. In addition, ‘Cody’ alfalfa, white clover, slender lespedeza and ‘Kobe’ lespedeza showed no significant
reductions in MDW under 50% shade.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
9.
Eastern white pine (Pinus strobus L.) is a moderately shade-tolerant species that co-occurs with hardwood tree species in many forests of the eastern United States, as well as in pure stands. The species is valued for its timber, as well as for wildlife and recreation. Regeneration of this species is somewhat unpredictable and often occurs in patches of similarly-aged cohorts. We described the regeneration patterns of this species and examined their relation to environmental variables within hardwood forests of southwestern Virginia, USA. An average of 5.3 white pine patches per ha were observed in this study. The majority of patches consisted of saplings (85%), with 9% of patches in pole size classes, and 6% in seedling size classes. The average density of patches was 43.5 stems with an average age of 20 years. The size of patches averaged 80.6 m2. The total density of seedlings and the number of regeneration patches of all sizes of regeneration (seedlings, saplings, and poles) in plots was related to the surrounding density of large white pine trees (potential seed trees). The density of seedlings or patches was not significantly related to current vegetation cover or soil surface cover variables, but more than half of regeneration patches were located in or adjacent to old canopy gaps, most of which were old logging gaps. While seedling regeneration may occur within the understory of these forests near seed trees, advancement to the sapling and pole stage appears to be associated with canopy gap formation. 相似文献
10.
11.
《Forest Ecology and Management》1998,108(3):275-285
In boreal forest, ground vegetation of bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) and feather mosses strongly suppress seed regeneration of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). We investigated a site preparation technique by steam treatment to control bilberry and moss vegetation after clear cutting. Sowing experiments were performed between 1993 and 1995 with Scots pine in four treatments: (1) untreated vegetation, (2) activated carbon added to the soil surface of otherwise intact ground vegetation, (3) steam treated vegetation, and (4) activated carbon added to the soil surface of steam treated vegetation. Activated carbon was added to adsorb possible phenolic compounds released from bilberry leaves and litter. Steam killed ground vegetation effectively and recolonisation of vascular plants and mosses was slow. Scots pine seedling establishment was improved by steam treatment especially when activated carbon was added to the soil surface. We interpret that activated carbon adsorbed and reduced the levels of phenolics from bilberry litter and humus, which otherwise may inhibit seed germination. Dry weight of four year old seedlings was three times higher in steam treated plots than in untreated plots. Seedling nutrient content was also strongly improved by steam treatment. We interpret the increased growth of seedlings in steam treated plots mainly as an effect of reduced resource competition from ground vegetation. Irrespective of treatment, almost all fine roots were colonised by ectomycorrhizal fungi. Using PCR-based molecular methods we were able to identify 28 taxa forming mycorrhiza on the seedlings. Steam treatment did not affect species richness and abundance of ectomycorrhizal inocculum. We conclude that steam treatment has the potential to be an efficient and environmentally acceptable method to reduce negative influence of bilberry vegetation on Scots pine seedling establishment and early growth. 相似文献
12.
For several decades, agroforestry specialists have promoted the planting of fallow fields with nitrogen-fixing, fast-growing
trees or shrubs to accelerate soil rehabilitation and provide secondary products like woodfuel. Yet, such ‘improved fallows’
have not been widely adopted, in part due to the costs of labour and seedlings. In some situations, however, farmers have
developed novel approaches to agroforestry fallows by taking advantage of spontaneous invasions of woody leguminous tree species
present in the vicinity of their fields. In this paper, we examine cases from Réunion, highland Madagascar, the Bateke plateau
in Congo, and the Palni hills of southern India where farmers have adapted their cultivation practices to take advantage of
the invasive characteristics of Australian acacias that were introduced earlier for other reasons. We focus on the key social,
economic, and environmental factors that influence farmers in these places to gain opportunistic benefit from these introduced
tree species that biologists have been deemed invasive and damaging to local ecosystems and biodiversity. We conclude that
opportunistic fallowing of invasives can be viewed as a hybrid strategy combining elements of natural fallows and improved
fallows—which we call ‘hybrid improved fallows’—in that it takes advantage of the ‘weedy’ characteristics of introduced leguminous
tree species in the landscape and offers a cost-effective and pragmatic strategy for soil and vegetation management for farmers. 相似文献
13.
The success of various grass-legume mixtures in controlling competing vegetation, and their effect on subsequent survival and growth of Sitka spruce seedlings was studied on a coastal alluvial site in northwestern British Columbia. Mechanically scarified (bladed) strips were hand seeded to pure and combined mixtures of legumes, bunchgrasses, and sodforming grasses. An unseeded control (bladed but not seeded) was also established.Alsike clover (Trifolium hybridum L.) was the most successful legume species. Orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.), big bluegrass (Poa ampla Merr.), and creeping red fescue (Festuca rubra L.) were the most successful grass species. Red alder (Alnus rubra Bong.) density and height were lower in legume-seeded treatments. Red elderberry (Sambucus racemosa L.) and salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis Pursh.) were effectively reduced by blading and have reestablished slowly. A combination of blading and early establishment of either sodforming grasses or bunchgrasses effectively decreased reinvasion by thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus Nutt.).Growth of Sitka spruce was best in the unseeded control treatment or in the treatments with legumes but no sodforming grasses. Presence of sodforming grasses decreased both diameter and height growth. Sitka spruce diameter decreased with increasing red alder density. After 5 growing seasons, spruce has outgrown all competitors except red alder. 相似文献
14.
Management of subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.) understory grown with loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) and slash pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm.) resulted in differences in both clover yield and pine diameter. Loblolly and slash pines were planted into a subterranean clover pasture in 1984. Suppression of warm season herbaceous vegetation by applying herbicides or disking the site in late summer resulted in significantly greater subterranean clover production than on the control site where no additional understory management was applied. Pine species had no effects on clover yield. The N content of the pine foliage on the blocks managed with herbicide application or disking generally was significantly greater than the control from the 5th through 7th growing seasons (1988–1990). The dbh of the pine trees in the disked and herbicide treatments was greater than the control after the 7th growing season (1990). 相似文献
15.
Tolerance of bareroot and container-grown seedlings of black spruce (Picea mariana (Mill.) B.S.P.), jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.), and eastern white pine (Pinus strobus L.) to competition from herbaceous vegetation was examined in the first five years after planting on a site in the Great Lakes/St. Lawrence forest of Ontario, Canada. Shoot and root morphological characteristics of various stocktypes were measured before planting and correlated with 5-year survival and growth following control and no control of herbaceous vegetation. For black spruce and jack pine, medium-sized bareroot stocktypes had greater relative 5-year stem volume growth in the presence of herbaceous vegetation than did container stock of either species or large bareroot stock of spruce. Relative volume growth was measured as the ratio of the cumulative stem volume increment in the presence of vegetation (Veg) to that in the absence of vegetation (NoVeg), i.e., the Veg:NoVeg ratio. In white pine, the Veg:NoVeg ratio of volume increment of medium container and large bareroot stocktypes exceeded that of small container and medium bareroot stocktypes. In jack pine, root collar diameter at planting and number of first-order lateral roots were positively correlated with 5-year Veg:NoVeg ratio of volume increment. In white pine, the Veg:NoVeg ratio was also positively correlated with root collar diameter at planting and with root volume. In black spruce, the ratio was not related to pre-plant morphology. Thus, for white pine and jack pine, certain pre-plant morphological features may be useful in forecasting the relative ability of different stocktypes to grow under herbaceous competition conditions in the field. 相似文献
16.
The relative effects of irradiance and soil water on alley-cropped herbage are poorly understood. Our objective was to determine
effects of irrigation on herbage productivity when tall fescue [Lolium arundinaceum (Schreb.) Darbysh.] was grown in two sites, a meadow and a loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) alley (620 trees ha−1), near Booneville, Arkansas. Three tall fescue entries were space planted in the meadow and pine alley with or without irrigation.
Herbage mass and nutritive value were determined at 8-week intervals for 2 years. Mean daily PAR was 33.9 (2004) and 37.5 mol m−2 d−1 (2005) in the meadow, while the pine alley received 5.6 mol m−2 d−1 (17% of the meadow) in 2004 and 4.3 mol m−2 d−1 (11% of meadow) in 2005. Effect of tall fescue entry tended to be small relative to site and irrigation. Irrigation compensated
for evapotranspiration in the meadow, but not in the pine alley when summer rainfall was about normal (2004) or low (2005).
Nevertheless, site (PAR) had a greater effect on herbage specific leaf weight, leaf elongation rate, tillers plant−1, mass tiller−1, and total nonstructural carbohydrate concentration than soil water. Irrigation might have had greater impact on herbage
productivity if more water had been applied or if canopy cover had been less extreme. Silvicultural practices should be imposed
to improve penetration of solar irradiance to the alley crop. 相似文献
17.
Arne Sæbø Inger Sundheim Fløistad Jan Netland Brynjar Skúlason Øyvind Meland Edvardsen 《New Forests》2009,38(2):143-156
Abies nordmanniana and Abies lasiocarpa, established for Christmas tree production in southwestern Norway (58°44′N, 5°38′E), were treated with different weed control
methods, including chemicals, use of black plastic mulch, grass or clover as ground cover, living mulch and mechanical hoeing.
Ground cover with black plastic mulching resulted in the best growth and quality in A. lasiocarpa; the least favourable treatment was when grasses were allowed to grow close to the trees. Unless measures were taken to remove
this competing vegetation, the ground cover grew over the trees, smothering 94% of them. A. nordmanniana plants grew to the same height on plots with no weed control as on plots with thorough weed eradication. Stem diameter decreased
on plots with ground vegetation compared to seedlings grown in the weed-free environment. The use of Trifolium repens as ground cover decreased height growth by 30% compared to thorough weed control. Both grasses and clover sown as living
mulch, damaged the trees more than did natural weed vegetation. 相似文献
18.
Hortensia Sixto Jordi Salvia Marcos Barrio Mª Pilar Ciria Isabel Cañellas 《New Forests》2011,42(2):163-177
Growth and production in the first year, as additional selection criteria, were assessed for nine poplar clones to be used
as short rotation woody crops (SRWC) in the production of biomass for energy purposes. In order to identify the most promising
clones in terms of growth and yield and also to assess their stability, trials were established at different locations in
Spain. The majority of these clones, which form part of the European list of base materials, have frequently been used in
plantations aimed at timber production but not for biomass in Mediterranean conditions. Others, such as those selected in
Italy specifically for biomass production (currently provisionally admitted), are being tested for the first time under different
soil and climatic conditions in Southwest Europe. The early selection of clones for rapid juvenile growth provides a valuable
additional input to the clonal selection process, especially where very short rotations are desired (no more than 3 years).
In any case, determining clonal stability in terms of growth is of great use not only when deciding on the clones to be used
in plantations but also when developing breeding programs. ANOVA and Genotype plus Genotype × Environment (GGE) biplot analyses
were used to analyse the growth and stability of the clones, which were then ranked according to mean performance and stability.
Differences were detected between clones as well as between the different environments tested. The biplot analysis allowed
different groups of clones to be identified according to their performance and degree of interaction displayed, thus providing
useful information for the selection process. The production of aboveground biomass in the first vegetative period ranged
from 1.7 to 8.0 Mg DM ha−1 at the different sites. ‘Monviso’, ‘Guardi’, ‘AF2’ and ‘2000 verde’ were the most productive clones whereas ‘Unal’, ‘Pegaso’
and ‘USA 49-177’ were the least productive. The stability analysis identified ‘AF2’, ‘Guardi’, ‘I-214’ and ‘MC’ as more stable
clones while ‘Monviso’, ‘2000 verde’, ‘Unal’, ‘Pegaso’ and ‘USA 49-177’ were found to be specifically adapted to certain environments.
This implies that where information on site conditions is not available, the ‘AF2’ and ‘Guardi’ clones offer greater assurance
of successful establishment and higher initial growth. The growth of ‘Monviso’ ‘2000 verde’ ‘Unal’ ‘Pegaso’ and ‘USA 49-177’
clones is highly dependent on site conditions during the establishment phase. Similarly, the SH (Shore Henares river) and
LT (La Tallada) sites were identified as the most highly discriminative environments for the set of clones while CS (Cubo
de la Solana) and AR (Atarfe) were identified as those where performance levels were average. 相似文献
19.
《Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research》2012,27(2):160-167
Abstract An experiment was established in 1978 in two Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] plantations in southern Sweden to study yield after mortality in patches with and without supplementarily planted (SP) seedlings. Gaps of different sizes were created by removing the originally planted seedlings. The gaps were either left unplanted or a supplementary planting was performed with one of four species [Norway spruce, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl.) or hybrid larch (Larix deciduas Mill×L. Leptolepis Gord.)] 2 (at Knäred) or 6 years (at Ullasjö) after the original plantation. In 2002, most of the SP Scots pine, lodgepole pine and hybrid larch seedlings were dead or severely damaged by roe deer and moose. Survival was high among SP Norway spruces, but they had slower growth than the originally planted spruces. Growth was lower at Ullasjö than at Knäred. In Ullasjö, growth was lower in small gaps than in large gaps. Trees in original regeneration in areas surrounding unplanted gaps were larger than trees surrounding gaps with SP seedlings, which in turn were larger than originally planted trees in plots without gaps. In conclusion, because the original plantation surrounding unplanted gaps used a large part of the open space and growth of SP seedlings was slow, supplementary planting resulted in an insignificant growth increase. However, supplementary planting may increase the timber quality of trees surrounding the gaps, although this effect remains to be quantified. 相似文献
20.
《Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research》2012,27(4):308-317
Abstract The effects of fencing and site preparation on performance of birch (Betula pendula Roth), oak (Quercus robur L.), pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] seedlings were studied over four growing seasons in southern Sweden. The experiment was composed of four browsing treatments, from which roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.) were excluded for 0, 12, 24 or 42 months, and four soil treatments. Natural browsing was combined with artificial browsing (clipping). It was demonstrated that browsing by roe deer could be isolated from browsing by moose (Alces alces L.) by selective fencing. Except for birch, browsing had little effect on seedling survival. Browsing reduced height growth by more than 100% for oak and pine, and more than 60% of pine seedling developed multiple stems. Except for oak, site preparation increased seedling survival. Inverting site preparation, in combination with or without fertilization, produced positive growth responses in seedlings, whereas patch scarification did not. There was no interaction between browsing and soil treatments on seedling performance. It was concluded that long-term protection against browsing by roe deer is needed for oak and pine, whereas short-term fences might be used for birch, and that spruce is relatively unaffected by browsing. 相似文献