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1.
Frank Jauker Tim Diekötter Franziska Schwarzbach Volkmar Wolters 《Landscape Ecology》2009,24(4):547-555
Semi-natural habitats provide essential resources for pollinators within agricultural landscapes and may help maintain pollination
services in agroecosystems. Yet, whether or not pollinators disperse from semi-natural habitat elements into the adjacent
agricultural matrix may to a large extent depend on the quality of this matrix and the corresponding pollinator-specific life
history traits. To investigate the effects of matrix quality on the distance decay of wild bees and hoverflies, six transects
along vegetated field tracks originating at a large semi-natural main habitat and leading into the adjacent agricultural matrix
were established in the Wetterau Region, central Hesse, Germany. Species richness of wild bees did not change with distance
from the main habitat in landscapes with sufficient grassland cover in the surrounding landscape, but significantly declined
when semi-natural grasslands where scarce and isolated in the adjacent agricultural matrix. Abundance of wild bees declined
with distance regardless of matrix quality. Species richness of hoverflies did not decline with increasing distance in any
landscape. Abundance even increased with distance to the main habitat independently of matrix quality. Thus, our data show
that taxa of the pollinator guild may perceive landscapes quite differently. Because of their differing dispersal modes and
resource requirements as compared to wild bees, hoverflies may play an important role in maintaining pollination services
in agricultural landscapes unsuitable for bee species. Our results highlight the need for considering these taxon-specific
differences when predicting the effect of landscape structure on pollinators.
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. 相似文献
2.
Context
Anthropogenic landscape simplification and natural habitat loss can negatively affect wild bees. Alternatively, anthropogenic land-use change may diversify landscapes, creating complementary habitats that maintain overall resource continuity and diversity.Objectives
We examined the effects of landscape composition, including land-cover diversity and percent semi-natural habitat, on wild bee abundance and species richness within apples, a pollinator-dependent crop. We also explored whether different habitats within diverse landscapes can provide complementary floral resources for bees across space and time.Methods
We sampled bees during apple bloom over 2 years within 35 orchards varying in surrounding landscape diversity and percent woodland (the dominant semi-natural habitat) at 1 km radii. To assess habitat complementarity in resource diversity and temporal continuity, we sampled flowers and bees within four unique habitats, including orchards, woodlands, semi-natural grasslands, and annual croplands, over three periods from April–June.Results
Surrounding landscape diversity positively affected both wild bee abundance and richness within orchards during bloom. Habitats in diverse landscapes had different flower communities with varying phenologies; flowers were most abundant within orchards and woodlands in mid-spring, but then declined over time, while flowers within grasslands marginally increased throughout spring. Furthermore, bee communities were significantly different between the closed-canopy habitats, orchards and woodlands, and the open habitats, grasslands and annual croplands.Conclusions
Our results suggest that diverse landscapes, such as ones with both open (grassland) and closed (woodland) semi-natural habitats, support spring wild bees by providing flowers throughout the entire foraging period and diverse niches to meet different species’ requirements.3.
Habitat loss and fragmentation of natural and semi-natural habitats are considered as major threats to plant species richness.
Recently several studies have pinpointed the need to analyse past landscape patterns to understand effects of fragmentation,
as the response to landscape change may be slow in many organisms, plants in particular. We compared species richness in continuously
grazed and abandoned grasslands in different commonplace rural landscapes in Sweden, and analysed effects of isolation and
area in three time-steps (100 and 50 years ago and today). Old cadastral maps and aerial photographs were used to analyse
past and present landscape patterns in 25 sites. Two plant diversity measures were investigated; total species richness and
species density. During the last 100 years grassland area and connectivity have been reduced by about 90%. Present-day habitat
area was positively related to total species richness in both habitats. There was also a relationship to habitat area 50 years
ago for continuously grazed grasslands. Only present management was related to species density: continuously grazed grasslands
had the highest species density. There were no relationships between grassland connectivity, present or past, and any diversity
measure. We conclude that landscape history is not directly important for present-day plant diversity patterns in ordinary
landscapes, although past grassland management is a prerequisite for the grassland habitats that can be found there today.
It is important that studies are conducted, not only in very diverse landscapes, but also in managed landscapes in order to
assess the effects of fragmentation on species. 相似文献
4.
5.
Response of generalist and specialist insect herbivores to landscape spatial structure 总被引：12，自引：1，他引：11
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect ofchanges in landscape pattern on generalist and specialistinsects. We did this by comparing the species richness andabundance of generalist and specialist herbivorous insects inalfalfa (Medicago sativa, L.) fields on 26 agriculturallandscapes that differed in spatial structure. The insects werefrom the families Curculionidae (Coleoptera), weevils, andCicadellidae (Auchennorhyncha), leafhoppers.We hypothesized that: (1) generalist richness and abundancewould be highest in landscapes with high diversity(Shannon-Wiener); (2) specialist richness and abundance would behighest in landscapes with (i) high percent cover alfalfa and(ii) low mean inter-patch distance. We tested for these effectsafter controlling for the patch-level effects of field size,field age, frequency of disturbance and vegetation texture.The important findings of the study are: (1) generalist richness andabundance increased with increasing landscape diversity and (2)isolation (percent cover alfalfa in the landscape and/or meaninter-patch distance) does not affect specialist insects. Theseresults are significant because they indicate that bothgeneralist and specialist insects may move over much largerdistances than previously thought. This is one of the firststudies to demonstrate a large scale effect of spatial structureon insects across a broad range of landscapes. 相似文献
6.
The landscape matrix modifies the effect of habitat fragmentation in grassland butterflies 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
Erik ?ckinger Karl-Olof Bergman Markus Franzén Tomá? Kadlec Jochen Krauss Mikko Kuussaari Juha P?yry Henrik G. Smith Ingolf Steffan-Dewenter Riccardo Bommarco 《Landscape Ecology》2012,27(1):121-131
The landscape matrix is suggested to influence the effect of habitat fragmentation on species richness, but the generality
of this prediction has not been tested. Here, we used data from 10 independent studies on butterfly species richness, where
the matrix surrounding grassland patches was dominated by either forest or arable land to test if matrix land use influenced
the response of species richness to patch area and connectivity. To account for the possibility that some of the observed
species use the matrix as their main or complementary habitat, we analysed the effects on total species richness and on the
richness of grassland specialist and non-specialist (generalists and specialists on other habitat types) butterflies separately.
Specialists and non-specialists were defined separately for each dataset. Total species richness and the richness of grassland
specialist butterflies were positively related to patch area and forest cover in the matrix, and negatively to patch isolation.
The strength of the species-area relationship was modified by matrix land use and had a slope that decreased with increasing
forest cover in the matrix. Potential mechanisms for the weaker effect of grassland fragmentation in forest-dominated landscapes
are (1) that the forest matrix is more heterogeneous and contains more resources, (2) that small grassland patches in a matrix
dominated by arable land suffer more from negative edge effects or (3) that the arable matrix constitutes a stronger barrier
to dispersal between populations. Regardless of the mechanisms, our results show that there are general effects of matrix
land use across landscapes and regions, and that landscape management that increases matrix quality can be a complement to
habitat restoration and re-creation in fragmented landscapes. 相似文献
7.
The role of landscape structure in species richness distribution of birds,amphibians, reptiles and lepidopterans in Mediterranean landscapes 总被引：2，自引：2，他引：0
The parameters referring to landscape structure are essential in any evaluation for conservation because of the relationship that exists between the landscape structure and the ecological processes. This paper presents a study of the relationships between landscape structure and species diversity distribution (estimated in terms of richness of birds, amphibians, reptiles and butterflies) in the region of Madrid, Spain. The results show that the response of species richness to landscape heterogeneity varies depending on the group of species considered. For birds and lepidopterans, the most important factor affecting the distribution of richness of species is landscape heterogeneity, while other factors, such as the specific composition of land use, play a secondary role at this scale. On the other hand, richness of amphibians and reptiles is more closely related to the abundance of certain land-use types. The study highlights the importance of heterogeneity in Mediterranean landscapes as a criterion for landscape planning and for definition of management directives in order to maintain biodiversity. 相似文献
8.
Karl-Olof Bergman Juliana Dániel-Ferreira Per Milberg Erik Öckinger Lars Westerberg 《Landscape Ecology》2018,33(12):2189-2204
Context
Loss and fragmentation of semi-natural grasslands has critically affected many butterfly species in Europe. Habitat area and isolation can have strong effects on the local biodiversity but species may also be strongly affected by the surrounding matrix.Objectives
We explored how different land cover types in the landscape explained the occurrence of butterfly species in semi-natural grasslands.Methods
Using data from 476 semi-natural grasslands in Sweden, we analysed the effect of matrix composition on species richness and occurrence. Additionally, we analysed at which spatial scales butterflies responded to matrix types (forests, semi-natural grasslands, arable land and water).Results
Forest cover showed the strongest positive effect on species richness, followed by semi-natural grasslands. Forest also had a positive effect on red-listed species at local scales. Responses to matrix composition were highly species-specific. The majority of the 30 most common species showed strong positive responses to the amount of forest cover within 200–500 m. There was a smaller group of species showing a positive response to arable land cover within 500–2000 m. Thirteen species showed positive responses to the amount of semi-natural grasslands, generally at larger scales (10–30 km).Conclusions
Our study showed that surrounding forest is beneficial for many grassland butterfly species and that forests might mitigate the negative effects of habitat loss caused by agricultural intensification. Also, semi-natural grasslands were an important factor for species richness at larger spatial scales, indicating that a landscape consisting mainly of supporting habitats (i.e. forests) are insufficient to sustain a rich butterfly fauna.9.
Context
The relative importance of habitat area and connectivity for species richness is often unknown. Connectivity effects may be confounded with area effects or they may be of minor importance as posited by the habitat-amount hypothesis.Objectives
We studied effects of habitat area and connectivity of linear landscape elements for plant species richness at plot level. We hypothesized that connectivity of linear landscape elements, assessed by resistance distance, has a positive effect on species richness beyond the effect of area and, further, that the relative importance of connectivity varies among groups of species with different habitat preferences and dispersal syndromes.Methods
We surveyed plant species richness in 50 plots (25 m2) located on open linear landscape elements (field margins, ditches) in eight study areas of 1 km2 in agricultural landscapes of Northwest Germany. We calculated the area of linear landscape elements and assessed their connectivity using resistance distance within circular buffers (500 m) around the plots. Effects of area and connectivity on species richness were modelled with generalised linear mixed models.Results
Species richness did not increase with area. Resistance distance had significant negative effects on total richness and on the richness of typical species of grasslands and wetlands. Regarding dispersal syndromes, resistance distance had negative effects on the richness of species with short-distance, long-distance and aquatic dispersal. The significant effects of resistance distance indicated that species richness increased with connectivity of the network of linear landscape elements.Conclusions
Connectivity is more important for plant species richness in linear landscape elements than area. In particular, the richness of plant species that are dispersal limited and confined to semi-natural habitats benefits from connective networks of linear landscape elements in agricultural landscapes.10.
Determining explanatory environmental factors that lead to patterns of biodiversity in cultivated landscapes is an important step for the assessment of the impact of landscape changes. In the context of an assessment of the effect of agricultural national extensification programme on biodiversity, field data of 2 regions were collected according to a stratified sampling method. A distribution model of 3 indicator species taxa (butterflies, spiders, and carabid beetles) is related to influencing factors by means of multivariate statistics (CCA, partial CCA). Hypothetical influencing factors are categorised as follows: (1) habitat (habitat type, management techniques) and (2) landscape (habitat heterogeneity, variability, diversity, proportion of natural and semi-natural areas). The correlation models developed for spider, carabid beetle and butterfly assemblages revealed that there are no general rules relating species diversity to habitat and landscape features. The relationship strongly depends on the organism and on the region under study. Therefore, biodiversity response to landscape and habitat changes has to be identified by means of a multi-indicator concept in different landscape situations.This revised version was published online in May 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
11.
Spatio-temporal landscape heterogeneity has rarely been considered in population-level impact assessments. Here we test whether landscape heterogeneity is important by examining the case of a pesticide applied seasonally to orchards which may affect non-target vole populations, using a validated ecologically realistic and spatially explicit agent-based model. Voles thrive in unmanaged grasslands and untreated orchards but are particularly exposed to applied pesticide treatments during dispersal between optimal habitats. We therefore hypothesised that vole populations do better (1) in landscapes containing more grassland and (2) where areas of grassland are closer to orchards, but (3) do worse if larger areas of orchards are treated with pesticide. To test these hyposeses we made appropriate manipulations to a model landscape occupied by field voles. Pesticide application reduced model population sizes in all three experiments, but populations subsequently wholly or partly recovered. Population depressions were, as predicted, lower in landscapes containing more unmanaged grassland, in landscapes with reduced distance between grassland and orchards, and in landscapes with fewer treated orchards. Population recovery followed a similar pattern except for an unexpected improvement in recovery when the area of treated orchards was increased. Outside the period of pesticide application, orchards increase landscape connectivity and facilitate vole dispersal and so speed population recovery. Overall our results show that accurate prediction of population impact cannot be achieved without taking account of landscape structure. The specifics of landscape structure and habitat connectivity are likely always important in mediating the effects of stressors. 相似文献
12.
Abandoned fields are perceived as potential habitats for species of threatened semi-natural dry grasslands. However, information
is lacking regarding how the spontaneous colonization of abandoned fields depends on the broader spatial context. We recorded
the occurrence of 87 target species in 46 abandoned fields and 339 dry grasslands. We tested the effect of the isolation of
abandoned fields from source grasslands on the number of dry grassland species occurring in abandoned fields either with or
without habitat characteristics being used as covariates. The isolation of the fields was calculated using the distance and
area (I
A
) or distance and species richness (I
S
) of source habitats. I
S
always explained the number of grassland species in the abandoned fields better than I
A
. The effect of isolation became smaller or even non-significant with the inclusion of covariates; it also changed with the
method used for measuring distance (edge-to-edge or center-to-center), and it was lower when other abandoned fields were considered
as additional source habitats. The different performance of the two isolation measures can be explained by the weak species–area
relationship in the grasslands, indicating differences in their habitat quality. Species richness is a better proxy of habitat
importance in terms of propagule source than habitat area, and the new isolation measure is therefore suitable for studying
the effects of landscape structure on species richness in landscapes presenting a weak species–area relationship, such as
areas exhibiting pronounced effects of land-use history. Inclusion of habitat characteristics as covariates may considerably
alter conclusions regarding the effect of isolation, which might actually be overestimated when assessed separately. 相似文献
13.
Context
The habitat amount hypothesis has rarely been tested on plant communities. It remains unclear how habitat amount affect species richness in habitat fragments compared to island effects such as isolation and patch size.Objectives
How do patch size and spatial distribution compared to habitat amount predict plant species richness and grassland specialist plant species in small grassland remnants? How does sampling area affect the prediction of spatial variables on species richness?Methods
We recorded plant species density and richness on 131 midfield islets (small remnants of semi-natural grassland) situated in 27 landscapes in Sweden. Further, we tested how habitat amount, compared to focal patch size and distance to nearest neighbor predicted species density and richness of plants and of grassland specialists.Results
A total of 381 plant species were recorded (including 85 grassland specialist species). A combination of patch size and isolation was better in predicting both density and richness of species compared to habitat amount. Almost 45% of species richness and 23% of specialist species were explained by island biogeography parameters compared to 19 and 11% by the amount of habitat. A scaled sampling method increased the explanation level of island biogeography parameters and habitat amount.Conclusions
Habitat amount as a concept is not as good as island biogeography to predict species richness in small habitats. Priority in landscape planning should be on larger patches rather than several small, even if they are close together. We recommend a sampling area scaled to patch size in small habitats.14.
Nina Farwig Debra Bailey Estée Bochud John D. Herrmann Eveline Kindler Niklaus Reusser Christof Schüepp Martin H. Schmidt-Entling 《Landscape Ecology》2009,24(7):919-927
Habitat loss and fragmentation lead to changes in species richness and composition which may affect ecosystem services. Yet,
few studies distinguish between the effects of habitat loss and isolation, or how multiple ecosystem services may be affected
simultaneously. We investigated the effects of variation in cover of woody and open semi-natural habitats and isolation from
forest on the relative functioning of pollination, seed predation and insect scavenging in agricultural landscapes. We established
30 sites in grassland locations in the Swiss plateau around Berne. The sites varied independently in their isolation from
forest edges, in the percentage of woody habitats and in the percentage of open semi-natural habitats in the surrounding landscape
(500 m radius). We experimentally exposed primroses, sunflower seeds and cricket corpses during spring 2008. None of the three
studied services was affected by variation in woody or open semi-natural habitat cover. However, the proportion of flowers
setting seed was significantly reduced by isolation from forest. Further, seed predation and insect scavenging were significantly
lower at isolated sites than at sites connected to woody habitat. This pattern was particularly pronounced for seeds and insect
corpses that were enclosed by wire netting and thus inaccessible to vertebrates. Thus, all three studied services responded
quite similarly to the landscape context. The observed small-scale determination of seed set, seed predation and insect scavenging
contrasts with larger-scale determination of pollination and insect pest control found in other studies. 相似文献
15.
Kimberley Adam Hooftman Danny Bullock James M. Honnay Olivier Krickl Patricia Lindgren Jessica Plue Jan Poschlod Peter Traveset Anna Cousins Sara A. O. 《Landscape Ecology》2021,36(1):265-280
Context
Functional connectivity is vital for plant species dispersal, but little is known about how habitat loss and the presence of green infrastructure interact to affect both functional and structural connectivity, and the impacts of each on species groups.
ObjectivesWe investigate how changes in the spatial configuration of species-rich grasslands and related green infrastructure such as road verges, hedgerows and forest borders in three European countries have influenced landscape connectivity, and the effects on grassland plant biodiversity.
MethodsWe mapped past and present land use for 36 landscapes in Belgium, Germany and Sweden, to estimate connectivity based on simple habitat spatial configuration (structural connectivity) and accounting for effective dispersal and establishment (functional connectivity) around focal grasslands. We used the resulting measures of landscape change to interpret patterns in plant communities.
ResultsIncreased presence of landscape connecting elements could not compensate for large scale losses of grassland area resulting in substantial declines in structural and functional connectivity. Generalist species were negatively affected by connectivity, and responded most strongly to structural connectivity, while functional connectivity determined the occurrence of grassland specialists in focal grasslands. Restored patches had more generalist species, and a lower density of grassland specialist species than ancient patches.
ConclusionsProtecting both species rich grasslands and dispersal pathways within landscapes is essential for maintaining grassland biodiversity. Our results show that increases in green infrastructure have not been sufficient to offset loss of semi-natural habitat, and that landscape links must be functionally effective in order to contribute to grassland diversity.
相似文献16.
Romain Carrié Emilie Andrieu Annie Ouin Ingolf Steffan-Dewenter 《Landscape Ecology》2017,32(8):1631-1642
Context
The local intensity of farming practices is considered as an important driver of biodiversity in agricultural landscapes and its effect on biodiversity has been shown to interact with landscape complexity. But the influence of landscape-wide intensity of farming practices on biodiversity and its combined effect with landscape complexity have been little explored.Objective
In this study, we tested the interactive effect of the landscape-wide intensity of farming practices and landscape complexity on the local species richness and abundance of farmland wild bee communities.Methods
We captured wild bees in 96 crop fields and explored the effect of landscape-wide intensity of various farming practices along a gradient of landscape complexity (proportion of semi-natural habitats).Results
We found that species richness and abundance of wild bees were more positively influenced by landscape complexity in highly insecticide-sprayed landscapes than in less intensively managed landscapes. In contrast, we found that the positive effect of landscape complexity on bee species richness only occurred in landscapes with low nitrogen inputs.Conclusions
Our study demonstrates the interactive effects of landscape-wide farming intensity and landscape complexity in shaping the diversity of farmland wild bee communities. We conclude that the management of farming intensity at the landscape-scale could mitigate the effects of habitat loss on wild bee decline and would help to maintain pollination services in agricultural landscapes.17.
Rune H. Økland Harald Bratli Wenche E. Dramstad Anette Edvardsen Gunnar Engan Wendy Fjellstad Einar Heegaard Oddvar Pedersen Heidi Solstad 《Landscape Ecology》2006,21(7):969-987
Knowledge of variation in vascular plant species richness and species composition in modern agricultural landscapes is important
for appropriate biodiversity management. From species lists for 2201 land-type patches in 16 1-km2 plots five data sets differing in sampling-unit size from patch to plot were prepared. Variation in each data set was partitioned
into seven sources: patch geometry, patch type, geographic location, plot affiliation, habitat diversity, ecological factors,
and land-use intensity. Patch species richness was highly predictable (75% of variance explained) by patch area, within-patch
heterogeneity and patch type. Plot species richness was, however, not predictable by any explanatory variable, most likely
because all studied landscapes contained all main patch types – ploughed land, woodland, grassland and other open land – and
hence had a large core of common species. Patch species composition was explained by variation along major environmental complex
gradients but appeared nested to lower degrees in modern than in traditional agricultural landscapes because species-poor
parts of the landscape do not contain well-defined subsets of the species pool of species-rich parts. Variation in species
composition was scale dependent because the relative importance of specific complex gradients changed with increasing sampling-unit
size, and because the amount of randomness in data sets decreased with increasing sampling-unit size. Our results indicate
that broad landscape structural changes will have consequences for landscape-scale species richness that are hard or impossible
to predict by simple surrogate variables. 相似文献
18.
Jeffrey D. Holland 《Landscape Ecology》2010,25(9):1349-1362
Understanding the effects of landscapes on pest and non-pest species is necessary if regional landscape planning is to both
control pests and conserve biodiversity. A first step is understanding of how both pests and non-pest species interact with
the landscape configuration to determine the density of the two groups. While it is impossible to examine the occurrence and
dispersal behavior of all species, different turnover rates in different species assemblages may offer general insights into
responses of species assemblages. In this study I examine the distance decay of similarity of longhorned beetle assemblages
in a large forest area in Indiana, USA, with minimal differences in habitat and few barriers to dispersal. Differences in
beta diversity between groups are therefore likely due to dispersal distances. I found differences in turnover rates between
species that decompose dead wood and those that attack living trees, and between species with different adult feeding habits.
This suggests that management for simultaneous conservation and pest control is possible. 相似文献
19.
Marie-Hélène Lizée Stéphanie Manel Jean-Fran?ois Mauffrey Thierry Tatoni Magali Deschamps-Cottin 《Landscape Ecology》2012,27(2):159-169
The aim of this paper is to examine the role of urban public parks in maintaining connectivity and butterfly assemblages.
Using a regression framework, we first test the relative importance of park size and isolation in predicting abundance and
species richness of butterfly assemblages across a set of 24 public parks within a large metropolitan area, Marseille (South-East
France). Then, we focus on landscape features that affect diversity patterns of the recorded butterfly communities. In this
second part, the urban landscape surrounding each park is described (within a 1 × 1 km window) according to two major components:
vegetated areas (habitat patches) and impervious or built areas (matrix patches). Specifically, we aim to test whether the
incorporation of this built component (matrix) in the landscape analysis provides new insights into the understanding of ecological
connectivity in the urban environment. We found a significant effect of both matrix configuration (shape complexity of the
built patches) and distance from regional species pool (park isolation) on diversity of butterflies that overrides park size
in their contribution to variation in species richness. This result suggests that many previous studies of interactions between
biodiversity and urban landscape have overlooked the influence of the built elements. 相似文献
20.
Few relevant data are available to analyze how landscape features affect the abundance and movement patterns of tropical insects.
We used mark-release-recapture techniques to study the effects of landscape structure and composition on habitat preferences
and movements of Canthon cyanellus cyanellus individuals, within a complex tropical deciduous forest landscape in South Mexico during 2004 and 2005. In total, 2,460 individuals
of C. c. cyanellus were captured, including 1,225 females and 1,235 males, out of which 124 individuals (65 females and 59 males) were recaptured
once, and 9 individuals (seven females and two males) were recaptured twice. The abundance of individuals was equally high
in large forest fragments, small forest fragments and hedgerows, but the abundance in pastures was less than half of the abundance
in the other habitat types. To disentangle the movement behaviour of the species from the spatially and temporally varying
sampling effort, we applied a Bayesian state-space modelling framework with a diffusion based movement model. Males showed
generally faster movement rate than females, and they moved faster within forests and hedgerows than within pastures. Contrary
to the assumption of the diffusion model, individuals did not move in a continuous fashion, indicated by the large fraction
of individuals that were recaptured in the site of release. However, the posterior predictive data did not deviate substantially
from the real data in terms of the mean and maximum movement distances recorded, and in terms of the dependence of movement
distance on time between captures. Our results suggest that an important component of the biota in Mexican agro-pasture landscapes
can utilize contemporary landscape elements such as hedgerows or small forest fragments in addition to large fragments of
remnant habitat. These habitats are still locally common in semi-natural ecosystems and require less intensive conservation
management. 相似文献