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1.
Context
Understanding connectivity patterns in relation to habitat fragmentation is essential to landscape management. However, connectivity is often judged from expert opinion or species occurrence patterns, with very few studies considering the actual movements of individuals. Path selection functions provide a promising tool to infer functional connectivity from animal movement data, but its practical application remains scanty.Objectives
We aimed to describe functional connectivity patterns in a forest carnivore using path-level analysis, and to explore how connectivity is affected by land cover patterns and road networks.Methods
We radiotracked 22 common genets in a mixed forest-agricultural landscape of southern Portugal. We developed path selection functions discriminating between observed and random paths in relation to landscape variables. These functions were used together with land cover information to map conductance surfaces.Results
Genets moved preferentially within forest patches and close to riparian habitats. Functional connectivity declined with increasing road density, but increased with the proximity of culverts, viaducts and bridges. Functional connectivity was favoured by large forest patches, and by the presence of riparian areas providing corridors within open agricultural land. Roads reduced connectivity by dissecting forest patches, but had less effect on riparian corridors due to the presence of crossing structures.Conclusions
Genet movements were jointly affected by the spatial distribution of suitable habitats, and the presence of a road network dissecting such habitats and creating obstacles in areas otherwise permeable to animal movement. Overall, the study showed the value of path-level analysis to assess functional connectivity patterns in human-modified landscapes.2.
Maintaining and restoring connectivity among high-quality habitat patches is recognized as an important goal for the conservation
of animal populations. To provide an efficient measure of potential connectivity pathways in heterogeneous landscapes, least-cost
route analysis has been combined with graph-theoretical techniques. In this study we use spatially explicit least-cost habitat
graphs to examine how matrix quality and spatial configuration influence assessments of habitat connectivity. We generated
artificial landscapes comprised of three landcover types ranked consistently from low to high quality: inhospitable matrix,
hospitable matrix, and habitat. We controlled the area and degree of fragmentation of each landcover in a factorial experiment
for a total of 20 combinations replicated 100 times. In each landscape we compared eight sets of relative landcover qualities
(cost values of 1 for habitat, between 1.5 and 150 for hospitable matrix, and 3–10,000 for inhospitable matrix). We found
that the spatial location of least-cost routes was sensitive to differences in relative cost values assigned to landcover
types and that the degree of sensitivity depended on the spatial structure of the landscape. Highest sensitivity was found
in landscapes with fragmented habitat and between 20 and 50% hospitable matrix; sensitivity decreased as habitat fragmentation
decreased and the amount of hospitable matrix increased. As a means of coping with this sensitivity, we propose identifying
multiple low-cost routes between pairs of habitat patches that collectively delineate probable movement zones. These probable
movement zones account for uncertainty in least-cost routes and may be more robust to variation in landcover cost values. 相似文献
3.
How should we measure landscape connectivity? 总被引：9，自引：0，他引：9
The methods for measuring landscape connectivity have never been compared or tested for their responses to habitat fragmentation. We simulated movement, mortality and boundary reactions across a wide range of landscape structures to analyze the response of landscape connectivity measures to habitat fragmentation. Landscape connectivity was measured as either dispersal success or search time, based on immigration into all habitat patches in the landscape. Both measures indicated higher connectivity in more fragmented landscapes, a potential for problematic conclusions for conservation plans. We introduce cell immigration as a new measure for landscape connectivity. Cell immigration is the rate of immigration into equal-sized habitat cells in the landscape. It includes both within- and between-patch movement, and shows a negative response to habitat fragmentation. This complies with intuition and existing theoretical work. This method for measuring connectivity is highly robust to reductions in sample size (i.e., number of habitat cells included in the estimate), and we hypothesize that it therefore should be amenable to use in empirical studies. The connectivity measures were weakly correlated to each other and are therefore generally not comparable. We also tested immigration into a single patch as an index of connectivity by comparing it to cell immigration over the landscape. This is essentially a comparison between patch-scale and landscape-scale measurement, and revealed some potential for patch immigration to predict connectivity at the landscape scale. However, this relationship depends on the size of the single patch, the dispersal characteristics of the species, and the amount of habitat in the landscape. We conclude that the response of connectivity measures to habitat fragmentation should be understood before deriving conclusions for conservation management. 相似文献
4.
A comparison of metrics predicting landscape connectivity for a highly interactive species along an urban gradient in Colorado, USA 总被引：1，自引：1，他引：0
Many organisms persist in fragmented habitat where movement between patches is essential for long-term demographic and genetic
stability. In the absence of direct observation of movement, connectivity or isolation metrics are useful to characterize
potential patch-level connectivity. However, multiple metrics exist at varying levels of complexity, and empirical data on
species distribution are rarely used to compare performance of metrics. We compared 12 connectivity metrics of varying degrees
of complexity to determine which metric best predicts the distribution of prairie dog colonies along an urban gradient of
385 isolated habitat patches in Denver, Colorado, USA. We found that a modified version of the incidence function model including
area-weighting of patches and a cost-weighted distance surface best predicted occupancy, where we assumed roads were fairly
impermeable to movement, and low-lying drainages provided dispersal corridors. We also found this result to be robust to a
range of cost weight parameters. Our results suggest that metrics should incorporate both patch area and the composition of
the surrounding matrix. These results provide guidance for improved landscape habitat modeling in fragmented landscapes and
can help identify target habitat for conservation and management of prairie dogs in urban systems. 相似文献
5.
Cities continue to grow worldwide, and the highly modified urban landscape becomes an inhospitable environment for many species because the natural vegetation cover is commonly fragmented, and the remnants are often isolated. Protected Areas (PAs) located surrounding or within urban areas may not achieve their goal of protecting local or regional biodiversity. Thus, an urban ecological network is essential to support their PAs. Thus, this study aimed at assessing the PAs connectivity in an urban landscape in Brazil and understanding whether urban forest fragments can support an urban ecological network. Besides spatial models based on functional connectivity and graph theory, we used participatory techniques to design the resistance surface and the least-cost paths (LCPs) for Atlantic Forest birds. The results showed critical paths (LCPs), important areas for restoration programs for improving PAs connectivity, and essential forest fragments for conservation and restoration. Although the landscape has a forest structure with 1873 forest fragments and 516 links through which the LCPs were structured, most forest fragments and LCPs cannot provide the necessary support for the PAs connectivity. The current ecological network is dependent on forest fragments neighboring (outside PAs) and the flux dispersions occurred mainly in the peri-urban areas. Riparian zones and anthropic grasslands also showed importance for the PAs connectivity. We identified only 28 forest fragments spatially connected, presenting several sizes, and located near large forest areas, relevant PAs, and riparian zones. Six of these forest fragments, smaller than ten hectares and strategically located in the urban matrix, were indicated for restoration actions. The current low connectivity among PAs brings the importance of native vegetation restoration in the riparian zone and anthropic grassland and the importance of the periurban areas to promote biodiversity connectivity in the urban landscape. 相似文献
6.
Matthew J. Smith Matthew G. Betts Graham J. Forbes Daniel G. Kehler Maryse C. Bourgeois Stephen P. Flemming 《Landscape Ecology》2011,26(5):709-721
Landscape composition and configuration, often termed as habitat loss and fragmentation, are predicted to reduce species population
viability, partly due to the restriction of movement in the landscape. Unfortunately, measuring the effects of habitat loss
and fragmentation on functional connectivity is challenging because these variables are confounded, and often the motivation
for movement by target species is unknown. Our objective was to determine the independent effects of landscape connectivity
from the perspective of a mature forest specialist—the northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus). To standardize movement motivation, we translocated 119 squirrels, at varying distances (0.18–3.8 km) from their home range
across landscapes representing gradients in both habitat loss and fragmentation. We measured the physical connectedness of
mature forest using an index of connectivity (landscape coincidence probability). Patches were considered connected if they
were within the mean gliding distance of a flying squirrel. Homing success increased in landscapes with a higher connectivity
index. However, homing time was not strongly predicted by habitat amount, connectivity index, or mean nearest neighbour and
was best explained as a simple function of sex and distance translocated. Our study shows support for the independent effects
of landscape configuration on animal movement at a spatial scale that encompasses several home ranges. We conclude that connectivity
of mature forest should be considered for the conservation of some mature forest specialists, even in forest mosaics where
the distinction between habitat and movement corridors are less distinct. 相似文献
7.
Dispersal traits determine plant response to habitat connectivity in an urban landscape 总被引：1，自引：1，他引：0
Identification of trait syndromes that make species vulnerable to habitat fragmentation is essential in predicting biodiversity
change. Plants are considered particularly vulnerable if their capacities for persistence in and for dispersal among local
habitats are low. Here we investigated the influence of easily measured functional traits on the presence of 45 plant species
in an urban landscape in north-west Germany where patches were separated by distances consistent with regular plant dispersal
range. To describe the spatial configuration of patches we calculated species-specific patch connectivities. Then we assessed
plant connectivity responses in distribution models calculated from connectivities and environmental predictors. Twenty (45%)
of the analysed species showed a positive connectivity response after accounting for species-specific habitat requirements.
These species differed from non-responsive species by functional traits associated with dispersal, including reduced seed
numbers and higher terminal velocities relative to non-responsive species. Persistence traits played however no role which
we attribute to the environmental conditions of urban habitats and their spatiotemporal characteristics. Our study underlines
that even ruderal plants experience dispersal limitation and demonstrates that easily measured functional traits may be used
as indicators of fragmentation vulnerability in urban systems allowing generalizations to larger species sets. 相似文献
8.
Individual movement is a key process affecting the distribution of animals in heterogeneous landscapes. For specialist species in patchy habitat, a central issue is how dispersal distances are related to landscape structure. We compared dispersal distances for cactus bugs (Chelinidea vittiger) on two naturally fragmented landscapes (≤ 4% suitable habitat) with different matrix structures (i.e., vegetation height of nonsuitable habitat between suitable patches). Using mark-release-recapture studies, we determined that most transfers between cactus patches occurred during the mating season. Dispersal distances were reduced by > 50% on the landscape that had reduced structural connectivity due to relatively high matrix structure and low patch density. An experiment with detailed movement pathways demonstrated that greater matrix structure decreased mean step lengths, reduced directionality, and thus decreased net displacement by > 60%. However, habitat edges between two matrix elements that differed substantially in resistance to movement were completely permeable. Therefore, the difference in distributions of dispersal distances between the two landscapes mainly reflected the average resistance of matrix habitat and not the level of matrix heterogeneity per se. Our study highlights the merits of combining estimates of dispersal distances with insights on mechanisms from detailed movement pathways, and emphasizes the difficulty of treating dispersal distances of species as fixed traits independent of landscape structure. 相似文献
9.
The rapid expansion of the world’s urban population is a major driver of contemporary landscape change and ecosystem modification.
Urbanisation destroys, degrades and fragments native ecosystems, replacing them with a heterogeneous matrix of urban development,
parks, roads, and isolated remnant fragments of varying size and quality. This presents a major challenge for biodiversity
conservation within urban areas. To make spatially explicit decisions about urban biodiversity conservation actions, urban
planners and managers need to be able to separate the relative influence of landscape composition and configuration from patch
and local (site)-scale variables for a range of fauna species. We address this problem using a hierarchical landscape approach
for native, terrestrial reptiles and small mammals living in a fragmented semi-urban landscape of Brisbane, Australia. Generalised
linear modelling and hierarchical partitioning analysis were applied to quantify the relative influence of landscape composition
and configuration, patch size and shape, and local habitat composition and structure on the species’ richness of mammal and
reptile assemblages. Landscape structure (composition and configuration) and local-scale habitat structure variables were
found to be most important for influencing reptile and mammal assemblages, although the relative importance of specific variables
differed between reptile and mammal assemblages. These findings highlight the importance of considering landscape composition
and configuration in addition to local habitat elements when planning and/or managing for the conservation of native, terrestrial
fauna diversity in urban landscapes. 相似文献
10.
The understanding and prediction of the responses of animal populations to habitat fragmentation is a central issue in applied
ecology. The identification of habitat variables associated to patch occupancy is particularly important when habitat quality
is affected by human activities. Here, we analyze the influence of patch and landscape characteristics on patch occupancy
by the subterranean herbivorous rodent Ctenomys porteousi. Patch occupancy was monitored in a network of 63 habitat patches identified by satellite imagery analysis which extends
along almost the whole distributional range for C. porteousi. Suitable habitat for the occurrence of C. porteousi is highly fragmented and represents <10% of the total area in its distributional range. The distribution of C. porteousi in the patch network is affected not only by characteristics of the habitat patches, but also by those of the surrounding
landscape matrix. Significant differences between occupied and empty patches were found in several environmental variables.
Overall, occupied patches were larger, less vegetated, more connected, and had larger neighbor patches than empty patches.
A stepwise procedure on a generalized linear model selected four habitat variables that explain patch occupancy in C. porteousi; it included the effects of habitat quality in the matrix surrounding the patch, average vegetation cover in the patch, minimum
vegetation cover in the matrix surrounding the patch, and the area of the nearest neighbor patch. These results indicate that
patch occupancy in C. porteousi is strongly influenced by the availability and quality of habitat both in the patch and in the surrounding landscape matrix. 相似文献
11.
John L. Orrock Gregory R. Curler Brent J. Danielson David R. Coyle 《Landscape Ecology》2011,26(10):1361-1372
The size, shape, and isolation of habitat patches can affect organism behavior and population dynamics, but little is known
about the relative role of shape and connectivity in affecting ecological communities at large spatial scales. Using six sampling
sessions from July 2001 until August 2002, we collected 33,685 arthropods throughout seven 12-ha experimental landscapes consisting
of clear-cut patches surrounded by a matrix of mature pine forest. Patches were explicitly designed to manipulate connectivity
(via habitat corridors) independently of area and edge effects. We found that patch shape, rather than connectivity, affected
ground-dwelling arthropod richness and beta diversity (i.e. turnover of genera among patches). Arthropod communities contained
fewer genera and exhibited less turnover in high-edge connected and high-edge unconnected patches relative to low-edge unconnected
patches of similar area. Connectivity, rather than patch shape, affected the evenness of ground-dwelling arthropod communities;
regardless of patch shape, high-edge connected patches had lower evenness than low- or high-edge unconnected patches. Among
the most abundant arthropod orders, increased richness in low-edge unconnected patches was largely due to increased richness
of Coleoptera, whereas Hymenoptera played an important role in the lower evenness in connected patches and patterns of turnover.
These findings suggest that anthropogenic habitat alteration can have distinct effects on ground-dwelling arthropod communities
that arise due to changes in shape and connectivity. Moreover, this work suggests that corridors, which are common conservation
tools that change both patch shape and connectivity, can have multiple effects on arthropod communities via different mechanisms,
and each effect may alter components of community structure. 相似文献
12.
Identification of functional corridors with movement characteristics of brown bears on the Kenai Peninsula,Alaska 总被引：2，自引：1，他引：2
Tabitha A. Graves Sean Farley Michael I. Goldstein Christopher Servheen 《Landscape Ecology》2007,22(5):765-772
We identified primary habitat and functional corridors across a landscape using Global Positioning System (GPS) collar locations
of brown bears (Ursus arctos). After deriving density, speed, and angular deviation of movement, we classified landscape function for a group of animals
with a cluster analysis. We described areas with high amounts of sinuous movement as primary habitat patches and areas with
high amounts of very directional, fast movement as highly functional bear corridors. The time between bear locations and scale
of analysis influenced the number and size of corridors identified. Bear locations should be collected at intervals ≤6 h to
correctly identify travel corridors. Our corridor identification technique will help managers move beyond the theoretical
discussion of corridors and linkage zones to active management of landscape features that will preserve connectivity. 相似文献
13.
Landscape connectivity and animal behavior: functional grain as a key determinant for dispersal 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
Landscape connectivity can be viewed from two perspectives that could be considered as extremes of a gradient: functional
connectivity (refers to how the behavior of a dispersing organism is affected by landscape structure and elements) and structural
connectivity (depends on the spatial configuration of habitat patches in the landscape like vicinity or presence of barriers).
Here we argue that dispersal behavior changes with landscape configuration stressing the evolutionary dimension that has often
been ignored in landscape ecology. Our working hypothesis is that the functional grain of resource patches in the landscape
is a crucial factor shaping individual movements, and therefore influencing landscape connectivity. Such changes are likely
to occur on the short-term (some generations). We review empirical studies comparing dispersal behavior in landscapes differing
in their fragmentation level, i.e., with variable resource grain. We show that behavioral variation affecting each of the
three stages of the dispersal process (emigration, displacement or transfer in the matrix, and immigration) is indeed likely
to occur according to selective pressures resulting from changes in the grain of the landscape (mortality or deferred costs).
Accordingly, landscape connectivity results from the interaction between the dispersal behavior of individuals and the grain
of each particular landscape. The existence of this interaction requires that connectivity estimates (being based on individual-based
models, least cost distance algorithms, and structural connectivity metrics or even Euclidian distance) should be carefully
evaluated for their applicability with respect to the required level of precision in species-specific and landscape information. 相似文献
14.
Evaluating functional connectivity with matrix behavior uncertainty for an endangered butterfly 总被引：1，自引：1，他引：0
Understanding animal responses to landscape elements helps forecast population reactions to changing landscape conditions. The challenge is that some behaviors are poorly known and difficult to estimate. We assessed how uncertainty in behavioral responses to dense woods, an avoided landscape structure, impacts functional connectivity among reproductive habitat patches for Fender’s blue butterfly, an endangered prairie species of western Oregon, USA. We designed a factorial simulation experiment using a spatially explicit individual-based model to project functional connectivity for female butterflies across current and alternative landscapes. We varied the probability of dense woods entry and turning angle standard deviation for movements within the dense woods over a range of biologically reasonable and observed values. Butterflies in the current landscape (46 % dense woods) and one with prairie encroached by forest (60 % dense woods) showed reductions in functional connectivity estimates consistent with the expectations of habitat fragmentation. Although dense woods entrance uncertainty impacted functional connectivity projections, uncertainty in the dense woods turning angle standard deviation had comparatively little impact on connectivity estimates. Reduction and reconfiguration of the current dense woods to 27 % cover (restored landscape) appeared to facilitate a corridor behavior in dispersing individuals, likely providing a functional connectivity estimate comparable to the historic landscape (<5 % dense woods). Our simulations suggest that additional study of butterfly movement within the dense woods is unnecessary and that a partial reduction in dense woods would be sufficient to achieve historic levels of functional connectivity for Fender’s blue across the study landscape. 相似文献
15.
Evaluation of landscape connectivity at community level using satellite-derived NDVI 总被引：1，自引：1，他引：0
Audrey Muratet Romain Lorrillière Philippe Clergeau Colin Fontaine 《Landscape Ecology》2013,28(1):95-105
Landscape connectivity, defined as the degree to which the landscape facilitates or impedes movement among resource patches, has been considered to be a key issue for biodiversity conservation. However, the use of landscape connectivity measurements has been strongly criticised due to uncertainties in the methods used and the lack of validation. Moreover, measurements are typically restricted to the population level, whereas management is generally carried out at the community level. Here, we used satellite imagery and network metrics to predict the landscape connectivity at community level for semi-natural herbaceous patches in an urban area near Paris (France). We tested different measurement methods, both taking into account and ignoring the spatial heterogeneity of matrix resistance estimated by the normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI), and quantifying the link strength between patches with the shortest path and flow metrics. We assessed the fit of these connectivity predictions with empirical data on plant communities embedded in an urban matrix. Our results indicate that the best fit with the empirical data is obtained when the connectivity is estimated with the flow metric and takes into account the matrix heterogeneity. Overall, our study helps to estimate the landscape connectivity of urban areas and makes recommendations for ways in which we might optimise landscape planning with respect to conservation of urban biodiversity. 相似文献
16.
Kevin Watts Amy E. Eycott Phillip Handley Duncan Ray Jonathan W. Humphrey Christopher P. Quine 《Landscape Ecology》2010,25(9):1305-1318
The focus of biodiversity conservation is shifting to larger spatial scales in response to habitat fragmentation and the need
to integrate multiple landscape objectives. Conservation strategies increasingly incorporate measures to combat fragmentation
such as ecological networks. These are often based on assessment of landscape structure but such approaches fail to capitalise
on the potential offered by more ecologically robust assessments of landscape function and connectivity. In this paper, we
describe a modelling approach to identifying functional habitat networks and demonstrate its application to a fragmented landscape
where policy initiatives seek to improve conditions for woodland biodiversity including increasing woodland cover. Functional
habitat networks were defined by identifying suitable habitat and by modelling connectivity using least-cost approaches to
account for matrix permeability. Generic focal species (GFS) profiles were developed, in consultation with stakeholders, to
represent species with high and moderate sensitivity to fragmentation. We demonstrated how this form of analysis can be used
to aid the spatial targeting of conservation actions. This ‘targeted’ action scenario was tested for effectiveness against
comparable scenarios, which were based on random and clumped actions within the same landscape. We tested effectiveness using
structural metrics, network-based metrics and a published functional connectivity indicator. Targeting actions within networks
resulted in the highest mean woodland area and highest connectivity indicator value. Our approach provides an assessment of
landscape function by recognising the importance of the landscape matrix. It provides a framework for the targeting and evaluation
of alternative conservation options, offering a pragmatic, ecologically-robust solution to a current need in applied landscape
ecology. 相似文献
17.
Cultural landscapes of Germany are patch-corridor-matrix mosaics for an invasive megaforb 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
Predicting the vulnerability of landscapes to both the initial colonisation and the subsequent spread of invasive species
remains a major challenge. The aim of this study was to assess the relative importance of sub-patch level factors and landscape
factors for the invasion of the megaforb Heracleum mantegazzianum. In particular, we tested which factors affect the presence in suitable habitat patches and the cover-percentage within invaded
patches. For this purpose, we used standard (logistic) regression modelling techniques. The regression analyses were based
on inventories of suitable habitat patches in 20 study areas (each 1 km2) in cultural landscapes of Germany. The cover percentage in invaded patches was independent from landscape factors, except
for patch shape, and even unsatisfactorily explained by sub-patch level factors included in the analysis (R
2 = 0.19). In contrast, presence of H. mantegazzianum was affected by both local and landscape factors. Woody habitat structure decreased the occurrence probability, whereas vicinity
to transport corridors (rivers, roads), high habitat connectivity, patch size and perimeter-area ratio of habitat patches
had positive effects. The significance of corridors and habitat connectivity shows that dispersal of H. mantegazzianum through the landscape matrix is limited. We conclude that cultural landscapes of Germany function as patch-corridor-matrix
mosaics for the spread of H. mantegazzianum. Our results highlight the importance of landscape structure and habitat configuration for invasive spread. Furthermore,
this study shows that both local and landscape factors should be incorporated into spatially explicit models to predict spatiotemporal
dynamics and equilibrium stages of plant invasions. 相似文献
18.
Landscape features that promote animal movement contribute to functional habitat connectivity. Factors that affect the use of landscape features, such as predation risk, may alter functional connectivity. We identify factors important to functional habitat connectivity by quantifying movement patterns of the Santa Rosa beach mouse (Peromyscus polionotus leucocephalus) in relation to landscape features and by examining how ambient perceived predation risk, which is altered by moon phase, interacts with landscape features. We use track paths across the sand to relate the probability that beach mice cross gaps between vegetation patches to gap width, patch quality, landscape context and moon phase. Overall activity levels were lower during full versus new moon nights, demonstrating that beach mice respond negatively to moonlight. Gap crossing was more likely during new moon nights (25 % of gaps crossed vs. 7 % during full moon nights), and across narrower gaps (<8.38 m) that led to larger vegetation patches (>11.75 m2). This study suggests that vegetation recovery is necessary for functional connectivity in post-hurricane landscapes commonly inhabited by beach mice and provides initial guidelines for restoring landscape connectivity. More broadly, this study highlights the importance of considering predation risk when quantifying landscape connectivity, as landscape features that facilitate connectivity when predation risk is low may be ineffective if predation risk increases over time or across space. 相似文献
19.
Graph-based analysis is a promising approach for analyzing the functional and structural connectivity of landscapes. In human-shaped
landscapes, species have become vulnerable to land degradation and connectivity loss between habitat patches. Movement across
the landscape is a key process for species survival that needs to be further investigated for heterogeneous human-dominated
landscapes. The common frog (Rana temporaria) was used as a case study to explore and provide a graph connectivity analysis framework that integrates habitat suitability
and dispersal responses to landscape permeability. The main habitat patches influencing habitat availability and connectivity
were highlighted by using the software Conefor Sensinode 2.2. One of the main advantages of the presented graph-theoretical
approach is its ability to provide a large choice of variables to be used based on the study’s assumptions and knowledge about
target species. Based on dispersal simulation modelling in potential suitable habitat corridors, three distinct patterns of
nodes connections of differing importance were revealed. These patterns are locally influenced by anthropogenic barriers,
landscape permeability, and habitat suitability. And they are affected by different suitability and availability gradients
to maximize the best possible settlement by the common frog within a terrestrial habitat continuum. The study determined the
key role of landscape-based approaches for identifying the “availability-suitability-connectivity” patterns from a local to
regional approach to provide an operational tool for landscape planning. 相似文献