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1.
Eucalypt (Eucalyptus spp.) tree farming is a source of income for many smallholders in developing and emerging countries and critical to the resource supply of many pulp and paper companies. These companies rely on smallholders adopting tree farming, sometimes by offering a contract. This paper reports a study from four regions of Thailand, where smallholder eucalypt tree farming is practiced, which investigated the financial performance of contract eucalypt tree farming for smallholders. A total of 82 contract eucalypt tree farmers and 81 independent tree farmers were systematically selected and surveyed in these regions, using door-to-door personal interviews. Focus groups and key informant interviews were also used to gain in-depth understanding of the issues. An investment appraisal analysis was used to determine and evaluate comparative financial returns from various cutting cycle periods, through computation of the net present value (NPV). There was no evidence that contracts increase the NPV of tree growing. It could be that tree growers entered into a contractual agreement with the expectation of higher benefits and the importance of this expectation diminishes as the crop matures, and tree farmers appreciate the strong market for eucalypt wood in Thailand. Contracts do not increase inequalities in terms of income but they might increase inequalities in terms of knowledge, because farmers with more land have better access to new knowledge provided by the contracting company. 相似文献
2.
Declining natural forests and growing demands for wood products are encouraging the rapid expansion of eucalypt farm forestry in Ethiopia, and Arsi Negelle district represents areas with recent plantation expansion in the Rift Valley area of Ethiopia. This study assessed trends in eucalypt planting over the last five decades, identified the determinants, and examined perceptions of local stakeholders towards this expansion in the district. Quantitative data were gathered through a household survey and farm level inventory. About 90% of the respondents had planted eucalypts, and 52% of them were engaged in planting since the late 1990s. About 11% converted cropland to eucalypt woodlots, which is also a growing trend in the area. Proximity to Arsi-Forest Enterprise (P?<?0.01) and area of land holding (P?<?0.01) positively and significantly affected both decision to plant and land area allocated to eucalypts plantings. Active labour in the family negatively and significantly (P?<?0.05) affected planting decisions, while education level of the household head positively and significantly (P?<?0.05) affected land area allocated to eucalypts plantings. Despite strong policy discouragement and perceived adverse ecological effects by the farmers themselves, 96% of them and 90% of the district experts support the expansion. Eucalyptus has become the most desired and planted tree genus, and economics not ecology appears to drive its expansion. Unless better alternative sources of cash income and substitutes for energy and construction materials are found, its expansion is likely to continue even at the expense of cropland. It is concluded that research is needed to fine-tune current eucalypt farm forestry practices to reduce the associated ecological externalities, rather than grossly banning eucalypt planting by smallholders. 相似文献
3.
In the Philippines, smallholder farmers have become major timber producers. But the systems of timber production practiced
have several limitations. In intercropping systems, the practice of severe branch and/or root pruning reduces tree-crop competition
and increases annual crop yields, but is detrimental to tree growth and incompatible with commercial timber production. In
even-aged woodlots, lack of regular income and poor tree growth, resulting from farmers’ reluctance to thin their plantations,
are major constraints to adoption and profitable tree farming. In the municipality of Claveria, Misamis Oriental, the recent
practice of planting trees on widely spaced (6–8 m) contour grass strips established for soil conservation suggests ways to
improve the adoptability (i.e., profitability, feasibility and acceptability) of timber-based agroforestry systems. Assuming
that financial benefits are the main objective of timber tree farmers, we develop a simple linear programming (LP) model for
the optimal allocation of land to monocropping and tree intercropping that maximizes the net present value of an infinite
number of rotations and satisfies farmers’ resource constraints and regular income requirements. The application of the LP
model to an average farmer in Claveria showed that cumulative additions of widely spaced tree hedgerows provides higher returns
to land, and reduce the risk of agroforestry adoption by spreading over the years labour and capital investment costs and
the economic benefits accruing to farmers from trees. Therefore, incremental planting of widely spaced tree hedgerows can
make farm forestry more adoptable and thus benefit a larger number of resource-constrained farmers in their evolution towards
more diverse and productive agroforestry systems. 相似文献
4.
Increasing population in the forest zone of Cameroon has led to reduction of fallow periods and to diminution of per capita cropping land area. Alley farming is a promising technology for the zone; however, its large scale adoption depends on host of factors of which an important one is tree and land tenure. For this reason, a study was conducted in 1990 to determine implication of national land legislation and customary land and tree tenure on the adoption of alley farming in the forest zone of Cameroon.Despite national laws purposing to regulate land and tree use, ownership rights to land and trees are largely determined by customary tenure rules. According to the forest zone customs, land is passed on from father to son when the father dies. Owners of inherited lands have full rights on lands and these rights are rarely revoked. Women do not own lands but are allowed to crop any piece of their husband's land as long as they stay married. Despite the lack of land ownership, women might still readily adopt alley farming because they are primarily concerned about food crop production and the amount of land to be given to their sons in the future.Study funded by the International Livestock Center for Africa (ILCA), Addis-Abeba, Ethiopia, and technically supervised by the Land Tenure Center (LTC), University of Wisconsin, Wisconsin USA. 相似文献
5.
M. Bertomeu 《Small-Scale Forestry》2006,5(1):57-81
In the Philippines, timber production on small farms has become profitable as a result of reduced supplies due to extensive
deforestation and increasing demand. In the early 1990s, when the price of timber was high, farmers were promised huge returns
from tree farming. However, widespread planting of few species has led to oversupply and a sharp decline in the price of farm-grown
timber. Moreover, low intercrop yields as a result of competition from fast-growing trees and low timber yields due to poor
tree management, further reduce net economic returns. In spite of this, interest in tree farming remains high. This paper
examines the private profitability of two tree-maize systems, namely trees in blocks and trees in hedgerows, compared with the alternative of maize monocropping. The analysis reveals that maize monocropping provides higher returns
to land at the current timber price, but considerably lower returns to labour, than the maize-tree systems tested. This suggests
that tree farming is a more attractive option for labour and capital-constrained households or those with off-farm opportunities
that compete for their labour. These farmers may raise productivity and income by planting trees on the excess land that cannot
be devoted to annual crops. The analysis also indicates that wide-spaced tree hedgerows are superior to tree blocks, due to
lower establishment and management costs, longer periods of viable intercropping and more rapid tree growth. 相似文献
6.
Deforestation and degradation of productive lands are serious threats to the sustainability of forestry/agricultural practices
in Kenya. In the last two decades farm forestry (FF) has been promoted through pilot projects among local communities as an
example of sustainable land use. However adoption of FF is limited outside the project locations because FF improvement measures
focused mainly on biological (e.g. succession, biodiversity and traditional industrial timber production) and technical concerns
(e.g. material input delivery such as providing free tree seedlings for field planting) rather than local values, and interests
and the constraints facing farmers. This study examined the local farm priorities and constraints and the prospects for the
wider implementation of farm-level tree planting in four communities in Rachuonyo District. Using interviews with 597 randomly
selected household heads, the study assessed farmer’s production assets and activities, land tenure, priority tree species
and the constraints to growing trees on farms. Results show that farm labour is represented by a young population, 56.3% under
the age of forty. They are mainly engaged in small-scale mixed cropping integrated with multipurpose trees and some livestock.
Tree products contribute about 32% to household cash income, more than any other source (agricultural products, labour sales,
etc). Females were more often household heads and had considerable influence over productive activities, making them an important
target group in FF development. Farmers preferred exotic tree species due to their ability to provide short-term cash income,
fuel and shade. Farmers’ concerns included population pressure on limited farmlands and the problem of credit for agricultural
inputs. Given the feeling of secured tenure arrangement and influence of tree products on the household economy, farmers are
likely to invest more in efficient land uses such as FF if consideration is given to local priorities. 相似文献
7.
Slash-and-burn shifting cultivation is the conventional farming practice in Sierra Leone, where communal land tenure is by far the most common form of land use. Alley farming, the alternative agricultural system, has been introduced as a technical option to increase yield, reduce or eliminate fallow and conserve soil water. This study uses a logistic regression model to determine the factors influencing the adoption of alley farming in Sierra Leone. Data for the study were collected from a total of 160 farmers in 16 farming communities across 4 ecotones in the Freetown Peninsula through a survey, interactive discussion and personal observation. It is found that although most of these communities are aware of alley farming, female farmers are less likely than males to adopt this farming technology. Also membership of farmers’ associations and access to extension services positively influences adoption of alley farming, but limited land availability hinders adoption in the region. Most of the farmers practicing or trying out alley farming prefer this farming system over slash-and-burn shifting cultivation. High demand for fuelwood, short or no fallow periods and replenishment of soil fertility are among the attributes driving farmers to switch to alley farming. Despite its merits, alley farming is not perceived as a complete substitute for slash-and-burn shifting cultivation in the study area. For wider adoption, there is the need to develop demonstration farms to show the feasibility of incorporating farmer-specific biophysical, hydro-climatic and socio-economic conditions into alley farming system in the region. 相似文献
8.
9.
Using logistic and multiple regression analyses, this article examines the socioeconomic factors that influence farmers’ decisions to adopt on-farm tree planting, one of the agroforestry techniques promoted by government agencies and research institutions for use in the farming systems of Uganda. A household survey involving 200 farmers was carried out in the Subcounties of Kabamba, Mugarama, Kagadi, and Kiryanga in Kibaale District, western Uganda. From the analyses, we found out that a farmer's decision to adopt on-farm tree planting is influenced by household and field characteristics. Gender, tree tenure security, availability of seed and supply, guidance by extension and research Institutions, size of landholding per household, fuelwood scarcity, and main source of family income were the factors that significantly influenced the decision to adopt on-farm tree planting. We recommended that in order to promote increased adoption of on-farm tree planting, appropriate socioeconomic characterization should be explored in order to target areas with better adoption potential for optimal realization of the intended objectives by government agencies and research institutions. 相似文献
10.
Tarig M. Gibreel 《Agroforestry Systems》2013,87(2):311-318
Increasing trend in the sole crops commercialization has questioned the sustainability of the traditional gum Arabic agroforestry (Bush-fallow) system in western Sudan. This shift in the farming system from a traditional sustainable system to more commercialized one has resulted in a drastic decline in soil fertility, decreased crop productivity and low gum Arabic production. Therefore, identification of alternative options and incentives are required to ameliorate the negative environmental effects of increasing commercialization trends. This paper takes this issue and empirically investigating the factors influencing the decision to adopt agroforestry using a binary probit model. The results show that farmers with less commercialization, access to credit, less fragmented land, more education, high gum Arabic gate price, located away from the markets, and with more years of experience in farming are more likely to practice the traditional gum Arabic agroforestry system. In contrast, the allocation of more working days for commercial sole crops production, more fragmented land, and higher commercialization index reduces the probability of gum Arabic agroforestry adoption. In conclusion, this dichotomy between sole crop commercialization and traditional gum agroforestry system may be solved through the encouragement of the adoption of the traditional intercropping system with gum tree (Acacia senegal). Production of gum tree (Acacia senegal) itself should be more commercialized and prioritized. Conservation programs should focus on more educated, experienced famers with less fragmentized land if the policy is to promote the sustainable farming system in the region to promote soil fertility and to improve the effect of sole crop commercialization on traditional gum Arabic agroforestry system. 相似文献
11.
M. Van Noordwijk K. Hairiah S. Partoharjono R. V. Labios D. P. Garrity 《Agroforestry Systems》1996,36(1-3):55-82
Purely annual crop-based production systems have limited scope to be sustainable under upland conditions prone to infestation by Imperata cylindrica if animal or mechanical tillage is not available. Farmers who must rely on manual cultivation of grassland soils can achieve some success in suppressing Imperata for a number of years using intensive relay and intercropping systems that maintain a dense soil cover throughout the year, especially where leguminous cover crops are included in the crop cycle. However, labour investment increases and returns to labour tend to decrease in successive years as weed pressure intensifies and soil quality declines.Continuous crop production has been sustained in many Imperata-infested areas where farmers have access to animal or tractor draft power. Imperata control is not a major problem in such situations. Draft power drastically reduces the labour requirements in weed control. Sustained crop production is then dependent more solely upon soil fertility management. Mixed farming systems that include cattle may also benefit from manure application to the cropped area, and the use of non-cropped fallow areas for grazing. In extensive systems where Imperata infestation is tolerated, cassava or sugarcane are often the crops with the longest period of viable production as the land degrades.On sloping Imperata lands, conservation farming practices are necessary to sustain annual cropping. Pruned tree hedgerows have often been recommended for these situations. On soils that are not strongly acidic they may consistently improve yields. But labour is the scarcest resource on small farms and tree-pruning is usually too labour-intensive to be practical. Buffer strip systems that provide excellent soil conservation but minimize labour have proven much more popular with farmers. Prominent among these are natural vegetative strips, or strips of introduced fodder grasses.The value of Imperata to restore soil fertility is low, particularly compared with woody secondary growth or Compositae species such as Chromolaena odorata or Tithonia diversifolia. Therefore, fallow-rotation systems where farmers can intervene to shift the fallow vegetation toward such naturally-occurring species, or can manage introduced cover crop species such as Mucuna utilis cv. cochinchinensis, enable substantial gains in yields and sustainability. Tree fallows are used successfully to achieve sustained cropping by some upland communities. A variation of this is rotational hedgerow intercropping, where a period of cropping is followed by one or more years of tree growth to generate nutrient-rich biomass, rehabilitate the soil, and suppress Imperata. These options, which suit farmers in quite resource-poor situations, should receive more attention. 相似文献
12.
This paper presents empirical evidence on the impact of socio-economic factors on the adoption of agroforestry practices in
Cameroon. The analysis uses primary farm-level data collected from June to December 1996. Three major provinces of the country
were covered, namely Centre, Southwest and Northwest Several agroforestry technologies have been promoted among farmers in
the zone, including alley farming, improved fallow, live fencing, cut-and-carry fodder and apiculture. The status of adoption
of each agroforestry practice is described and factors that affect adoption identified. These are gender of farmer, household
family size, level of education, farmer’s experience, membership within farmers’ associations, contact with research and extension,
security of land tenure, agroecological zone, distance of the village from nearest town, village accessibility and income
from livestock. Research findings indicate that since factors affecting farmers’ adoption of agroforestry practices differ
across techniques, generalisation is to be avoided. 相似文献
13.
H. Bagnall-Oakeley C. Conroy A. Faiz A. Gunawan A. Gouyon E. Penot S. Liangsutthissagon H. D. Nguyen C. Anwar 《Agroforestry Systems》1996,36(1-3):83-104
A large proportion of global natural rubber production takes place in Southeast Asia. The majority of this rubber is produced by smallholders. Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia are the three principal countries involved. In Malaysia and Indonesia the smallholder sector accounts for 72% and 84% of total rubber production respectively. In other countries rubber plays a significant role on a more local basis. Imperata is a serious problem for the smallholder rubber farmer in most of Southeast Asia in three respects: the high cost (labour and/or capital) of opening Imperata-infested land, its competitive effect on rubber and annual intercrops, and the fire hazard that it poses during the dry season as a major source of combustible material. The costs of Imperata to smallholders are substantial in terms of a direct loss through fire and revenue foregone or delayed as a result of competition. Most smallholders intercrop their rubber during the first 1–3 years after planting it, and during this period Imperata is reasonably well controlled. Intercropping is only feasible for a limited period because of limited soil fertility and/or the shading effect of the rubber trees. After intercropping, Imperata tends to establish itself for a few years until it too is shaded out by the rubber. This is the problem period, during which farmers practise only limited weed management, if any.A large amount of research has been done on methods of controlling Imperata, but the recommended methods have been generally spurned by smallholders unless they have been given subsidies to apply them. This paper describes the precise nature of the Imperata problem, with reference to some of the smallholder rubber-based farming systems within Southeast Asia; the different Imperata control strategies currently practised in these farming systems; and some of the constraints on the adoption of currently and recently recommended practices. It then proposes a ten-point agenda for research on Imperata control, including two ways in which current research programmes could be usefully reoriented: first, they need to take greater account of smallholder farming systems and constraints; and second they should shift their emphasis from single-method to integrated control systems. 相似文献
14.
Ann Quinion Paxie W. Chirwa Festus K. Akinnifesi Oluyede C. Ajayi 《Agroforestry Systems》2010,80(3):457-465
Fertilizer tree technologies such as intercropping, relay cropping, improved fallows and biomass transfer have been promoted
as sustainable, low-input alternative or complimentary inputs to inorganic fertilizers in Malawi. However, research into the
long term effects of their adoption on household food security and poverty reduction is limited. This study examined whether
these technologies contribute to rural household of subsistence farmers in terms of food security and livelihoods improvement
in two districts of Malawi. The study shows that fertilizer tree technologies increase crop production and provide additional
income to households through sources such as sale of agroforestry tree seed and fuelwood. The choice of the technologies is
driven by the size of the land holdings and more benefits are associated with large land holdings. While fertilizer tree technologies
contribute to the reduction in hunger months, this is usually compromised at the household level by the inability to achieve
livelihood security, absorb and cope with shocks and overall improved welfare. 相似文献
15.
Input/output data from tree growing experiments in Southeast Asia were analysed within the framework of a model of a smallholder farm. Data on cropping were obtained from surveys of farmers. Prior to formulating a whole farm model, this input/output data were modified in two ways: (a) a yield penalty was imposed upon a continuous cropping regime to reflect the impact of land degradation; (b) an agroforestry (intercropping) activity was synthesised by reference to an existing agroforestry bioeconomic model. The modelling framework was conventional linear programming. The interplay of land area availability, land and labour productivity, and interest rates lead to a relatively complex picture, even for the simplified farming systems that were examined. Model results showed a clear indication of the potential role of trees, but this potential role decreased with increasing interest rates. The analysis suggested that smaller farms will be less inclined towards tree growing. A mixture of trees and crops appears attractive, on purely economic grounds, over a wide range of interest rates and land areas. Consideration of factors outside the model, such as risk aversion objectives of smallholders, and their limited opportunities to borrow for investments in tree planting, reinforce the tendency to combine trees and crops. 相似文献
16.
17.
The potentialities of agroforestry are generally investigated through their biophysiological phenomena, cost–benefit analysis,
and possible impact upon poverty reduction. There have been inadequate studies on the actual impacts of agroforestry intervention
on small landholders and of farmers' attitudes toward these agroforestry programs. Drawing upon the findings of an empirical
study, this article explores the effects of small-scale agroforestry on upland community development in the Chittagong Hill
Tracts, Bangladesh. More specifically, the study clarifies the merits and demerits of different agroforestry systems as perceived
by farmers, their impacts on the rural economy and the environment, farmers' attitudes toward the adoption of agroforestry,
and impacts of various government policies. Field data were collected by administering questions to 90 randomly selected smallholders
of the Upland Settlement Project (USP), as well as from project staff. The research tools employed were semistructured interviews,
group discussions, and uncontrolled observations. The results indicated that the agroforestry interventions have in fact increased
farmers' income through employment and the selling of farm products, as well as by improving the ecological conditions of
these areas through reduction of soil erosion, increasing tree coverage, and maintaining soil fertility. The adoption of different
agroforestry systems was governed mainly by the farmers' interests in following these techniques, their ability to cultivate
the land in the prescribed manner, and the market demand for their products. The major obstacles that prevented increased
agroforestry improvements included lack of confidence in new land-use systems, inappropriate project design (e.g., top-down
innovation approach), and policy issues regarding land tenure. Recommendations are proposed to strengthen social capital in
local organizations to enhance the livelihoods of the upland communities. 相似文献
18.
Most agroforestry-adoption studies are based on surveys of "non-adopters." An understanding of the circumstances that have led to a change of attitude of the adopters will be valuable in our efforts to enhance adoption rates. This study was undertaken to provide such knowledge based on a large agroforestry extension project involving 200,000 farm families and covering 25% of all rural households in Haiti. A questionnaire-based survey of the project participants was conducted covering 1,540 households and 2,295 fields in four regions of Haiti. Information was recorded about each farm and family member through interviews with farmers and visits to their farms. The results confirmed that farmers make decisions about tree culture based on household- and field characteristics. Different farmers consider trees differently depending upon how they fit into their farm-family strategy. In general, farmers installed tree hedgerows on fields of less secure tenure, of lesser fertility, and steeper slope, while on closer, more fertile fields of greater tenure security, tree seedlings and fruit trees were more common and there was a greater density of mature trees (>10 cm DBH). More money was realized from sale of tree products on actively cropped fields in more secure tenure and having more fertile soil. Older farmers managed a greater density of trees, especially when the land was in secure tenure status. This broad-based study shows that agroforestry implementation strategies in poor countries such as Haiti should be based on a thorough knowledge of how farmers use household and field characteristics to make adoption decisions. It also suggests that agroforestry-adoption studies should account for the dynamic changes occurring during extended time periods.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
19.
Introduction of two systems of agroforestry to the farmers portfolio is evaluated for their changes in cropping pattern, input
use, income generation, farmers attitude towards risk and nutrient availability. Two different types of farmers are studied
under both irrigated and dryland farming systems. Farm survey data collected from south Indian villages have been used with
a mean-variance framework to identify the risk aversion levels of farmers. The results indicate that the risk-taking preferences
of farmers should be given consideration in evaluating the impact of agroforestry systems. Among the two agroforestry systems
analyzed, the one with drumstick is shown to increase the risk of crop production while the one with leucaena reduces the
risk and enables farmers to invest in more risky cash crops. The impact of agroforestry on crop allocation, input use and
income differs due to the differences in resource availability of farmers. The influence of agroforestry on nutrient availability
of the farm households also differs based on the components of agroforestry, orientation of farming and the nature of farming
systems. It is argued that design of agroforestry systems should consider differences in resource constraints in farming systems
and risk attitudes of farmers towards their allocation decisions and that such considerations would largely enhance the successful
adoption of agroforestry in developing countries. 相似文献
20.
Farmers’ Fruit Tree-growing Strategies in the Humid Forest Zone of Cameroon and Nigeria 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
Ann Degrande Kathrin Schreckenberg Charlie Mbosso Paul Anegbeh Victoria Okafor Jacques Kanmegne 《Agroforestry Systems》2006,67(2):159-175
Many studies have stressed the importance of trees to rural households. Few, however, have focused on actual numbers and densities
of trees in different land-use systems. Based on community-level participatory research in six communities, semi-structured
household interviews and full-farm fruit tree inventories, this study aims to understand farmers’ tree-planting strategies.
Relationships between the diversity, number and density of fruit trees and farm size, land-use system, land tenure, distance
from the homestead, proximity to the forest, market access and household characteristics are investigated. The key factors
determining the differences in tree-growing strategies between communities appear to be market access, land use and access
to forest resources. Within communities, differences between individual households were less easy to explain but tenure was
important as was farm size. Smaller farms had higher fruit tree densities, a relationship that was particularly strong in
communities with good market access. Overall there was a great deal of variability both within and between communities and
many of the factors affecting tree-planting decisions were found to be highly inter-related. Despite this complexity, trees
on farm play an important role in rural household's livelihoods. Therefore, expansion of tree cultivation should be recognized
as a promising pathway to achieve increased income and food production by policy makers and extensionists alike. In addition
to improved tree propagation and management techniques, farmers should be strengthened in the processing and marketing of
agroforestry tree products and more emphasis should be placed on the development of tree enterprises. By doing so, farmers
will be able to earn a more important and consistent income from fruit trees, contributing to the Millennium Development Goals. 相似文献