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1.
鱼粉鱼油是渔业生产的重要原料,连接着海洋捕捞业与养殖业,是现阶段渔业转型工作的一个重要部分。中国自2000年以后鱼粉鱼油使用量在每年160×104 t左右,达到一个相对稳定的水平。通过梳理近10年中国鱼粉鱼油生产原料、产量和消耗情况,分析了中国鱼粉鱼油利用现状,提出了健全渔业捕捞相关法律法规、推动鱼粉行业绿色转型、加大水产动物营养生理与饲料的科研力度等方面的建议。  相似文献   

2.
Organic aquaculture has lagged behind the agriculture sector in terms of the quantities and diversity of certified organic products because of the absence of detailed accepted standards and criteria until recently. The main challenges for organic aquaculture are to improve the coordination between production and market and to achieve an appropriate framework to drive further development. Priorities for research include organic feeds and fish nutrition, consumers’ needs, food safety, environmental concerns and trade issues. In organically cultured fish, differences in feeds and nutrition compared to conventional systems are likely to result in differences in the quality of the flesh, and this is a significant factor in consumer choice. The review covers aspects of current use of eco‐certification, formulated feeds, feed composition, aquafeed technology, sustainable alternatives to common feed ingredients, nutritional physiology and general nutritional principles and product quality in the context of the organic aquaculture. There is a future for the development of organic aquaculture but its success depends on new knowledge and technical development to meet consumers’ growing interest. The industry has to utilize the research results and update and modify the criteria and standards and thus provide high‐quality products.  相似文献   

3.
Reduction or elimination of fish meal and fish oil from aquaculture diets can help to reduce the potential for contamination and dependence of the industry on pelagic fisheries while improving economic competitiveness. However, fish oil provides important omega‐3 (n‐3) fatty acids (FAs) essential to shrimp health and beneficial to humans. This study evaluated an organic, plant‐based diet formulated to replace fish meal and fish oil with plant proteins and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) produced by algal fermentation. Shrimp cultured in replicate outdoor ponds at 25/m2 were fed either a diet composed of organically produced plant ingredients or a conventional commercial fish‐meal‐based feed. No significant differences were found in production parameters between the conventional fish‐meal‐based diet and the plant‐based diet (production: 4594 and 4592 kg/ha; harvest size: 18.7 and 19.2 g; survival: 93 and 88%; and feed conversion ratio: 1.4 and 1.3, respectively). At harvest, shrimp were analyzed for 147 chemical contaminants and 71 FAs. Contaminant levels were negligible for shrimp raised on both diets. The fish meal and fish oil diet provided significantly higher quantities of eicosapentaenoic acid and DHA than the plant‐based diet, and the shrimp fed the conventional diet reflected this with higher levels of these beneficial FAs in edible tissues. Differences between feeds and shrimp tissues suggest that essential n‐3 FAs may accumulate in shrimp tissues over time or that natural pond productivity may play a role in providing supplemental nutrition. Shrimp raised on the two diets and wild‐caught shrimp are clearly distinguishable by their FA profiles. Compared to alternative protein sources like beef, pork, or chicken, differences in lipid profiles of shrimp raised on either diet may be insignificant because both offer increased human health benefits.  相似文献   

4.
ABSTRACT

This article tells the story of how fish oil has gone from an inferior to a premium oil product. With the growth of aquaculture, fish oil became a valuable feed component. Its value increased further as the belief in the health benefit of Omega-3 opened the market for direct human consumption through nutritional supplements. Strong demand, limited supply growth and weaker substitution between Omega-3 and Omega-6 has led to diverging trends between fish oil and vegetable oil prices, with fish oil now a premium oil product. We also investigated how the salmon aquaculture industry has responded to the challenge of rising fish oil prices. Concerted effort in nutrition and feed research is shown to have allowed a reduction in the share of fish oil in feed from around 25% in the early 2000s to around 12% today. This substitution effort has allowed salmon production to grow without using substantially more fish oil.  相似文献   

5.
鱼类营养和饲料研究始于70年前并借鉴陆生动物营养研究经验形成了研究范式。在过去70年中,鱼类营养和饲料研究取得了大量的成果,这些研究成果推动了水产配合饲料技术的进步,为水产饲料产业从无到有、从小到大做出了贡献。然而,随着全球水产养殖规模的不断扩大,水产养殖发展面临的资源和环境压力日益增加,对水产饲料也提出了更高的要求。事实表明,根据一些鱼类营养和饲料研究成果所配方的饲料在养殖生产实践中往往不能取得预期的应用效果,这意味着在已有范式下取得的研究成果有时难以很好地满足现代鱼类养殖产业的需要。本文叙述了具有重要经济价值的两种肉食性鱼类大口黑鲈和大黄鱼配合饲料研发与应用的历程,指出对饲料蛋白需求的低估是限制配合饲料长期未能在大口黑鲈和大黄鱼养殖生产中应用的主要原因。早期研究报道大口黑鲈的饲料蛋白需求为400-440 g/kg,大黄鱼的饲料蛋白需求为450-470 g/kg。经过重新评估后将大口黑鲈和大黄鱼的最适饲料蛋白水平分别提高到480-510 g/kg和490-520 g/kg。在适宜的饲料蛋白水平下,投喂配合饲料的大口黑鲈和大黄鱼生长与投喂冰鲜鱼时相当。作者认为对饲料蛋白需求的低估与已有鱼类营养和饲料研究范式存在的不足有关,其表现为：（1）强调食物对鱼类生长的作用,但忽视了实验鱼遗传背景和食物以外的环境条件对生长和摄食的影响;（2）强调鱼类个体生长对评价营养需求和饲料质量的重要性,但忽视了鱼类个体生长差异并不能完全反映养殖产量和效益的事实;（3）强调生长和饲料利用效率作为鱼类营养和饲料研究评价指标的重要性,但忽视了养殖对环境和自然资源的负面影响是限制水产养殖产业可持续发展的瓶颈;（4）没有足够重视基础饲料配方在评价营养需求或饲料质量方面的影响,一些研究因基础饲料组成不当而产生没有实际意义的评价结果。针对上述问题,作者建议从概念、理论和研究方法方面对已有的范式做如下修改：（1）重视鱼类遗传背景和食物以外的环境条件对鱼类生长的影响,明确鱼类营养需求取决于其生长需求;（2）重视食物中各种营养素之间的相互作用,明确不同饲料原料在实现配方的营养平衡方面发挥着不同的作用;（3）重视对实验鱼种质和种群结构的选择,重视对照组和处理组个体生长差异的幅度对判断饲料处理效应的指示作用,重视饲料配方对渔业资源和环境等水产养殖可持续发展相关的内容的影响。经过修改后的研究范式更符合养殖生产实际,在此基础上开展研究所获得的成果也能够更好地指导配合饲料生产,为鱼类养殖产业的可持续发展提供更好的科技支撑。  相似文献   

6.
卵形鲳鲹(Trachinotus ovatus)是我国近年来快速发展起来的重要海水养殖鱼类,其年产量高达12万t。目前,国内外有关该鱼的营养需求与饲料研究已有较多报道,但对有些营养素的研究还是空白。本文主要就其蛋白质、氨基酸、脂肪、脂肪酸、碳水化合物和微量营养素的需求,蛋白源和脂肪源替代鱼粉和鱼油,功能性饲料添加剂应用等方面的研究进展进行综述,以期为该鱼的精准营养研究及高效低成本环保配合饲料的研发提供参考资料,从而推动其养殖业的健康可持续发展。  相似文献   

7.
Strategies for further development of aquatic feeds   总被引：4，自引：1，他引：4  
ABSTRACT: To date, aquatic feeds have depended heavily on fishmeal and fish oil as their source of protein and lipid. However, the feed industry is encountering shortfalls in the availability of these ingredients because of a decline in the number of fish captured in the wild and the increased human demand for some of the species currently being used for fishmeal and oil production. Therefore, efforts are now being directed in different parts of the world to finding alternative quality ingredients, which ideally are less expensive and readily available for use in practical diets. The data accrued have shown that a large proportion of both fishmeal and fish oil can be replaced by other protein and lipid sources. However, it is emphasized that an optimal essential amino acid balance be maintained and that the n-3 highly unsaturated fatty acid requirement be satisfied when combining economical protein and lipid ingredients. Newly developed feeds should aim at being nutrient-dense in order to reduce the output of solid, P and N waste. This can be done through improving nutrient availability, optimizing the digestible protein to energy balance of the diet, and replacing dietary fishmeal with alternate ingredients. These diets should also be effective for maintaining good health and improving disease resistance in fish through enhancement of immune responses. A wholesome approach to culturing fish would be to use appropriate feeding standards that are aimed not only at improving economic returns but also at developing a lasting cohabitation of sustainable aquaculture and a cleaner environment. Furthermore, in the 2lst century aquaculture would still retain its place as a prominent source of food protein, signifying that fish feed research remains a forceful area in discovering better feeds for the industry.  相似文献   

8.
Abstract— Fisheries by-catch and by-product meals are portrayed as ingredients having a great potential as ingredients in aquaculture feeds. The present study was designed to evaluate the nutritional value of shrimp by-catch meal, shrimp processing waste meal, and two fish meals made from Pacific whiting (meal with and without solubles) for rainbow trout by determining apparent digestibilityof these ingredients and conducting a 12-wk feeding trial with juvenile fish (average initial weight 20 g/fish). Apparent digestibility coefficients (ADCs) for protein in diets containing by-catch and processing by-products were 76% for shrimp by-catch meal, 79% for shrimp processing waste meal, 88% for Pacific whiting meal without solubles, and 92% for Pacific whiting meal with solubles. ADCs for lipid were higher than 94% for all the diets. ADCs for energy were 57% for shrimp by-catch meal, 73% for shrimp processing waste meal, 70% for Pacific whiting meal without solubles, and 73% for Pacific whiting meal with solubles. Growth performance was significantly affected by dietary protein source. Fish fed the shrimp by-catch meal diet had weight gain and feed conversion ratios similar to that of fish fed the control diet with anchovy fish meal. Fish fed diets containing shrimp processing waste and Pacific whiting meal with solubles had significantly lower weight gain and higher feed conversion ratios than the control diet. Growth was significantly lower in fish fed the Pacific whiting meal diet compared to fish fed the anchovy fish meal. The lower growth of fish fed diets containing Pacific whiting meal appeared to be a result of lower feed intake, indicating perhaps a lower palatability of this ingredient. Additional research addressing processing methods, nutritional manipulations, and palatability enhancement is needed to improve potential of some fisheries byproduct meals as ingredients in the diets of rainbow trout.  相似文献   

9.
As increasing amounts of novel raw materials are used in aquafeed production, it is important to measure their quality against existing ingredients and their effects upon production strategies. A first step to achieving this goal begins with an improved understanding of the underlying growth potential of each farmed species across a range of dietary ingredients and farming practices. Species‐specific physiological limitations and metabolic effects of both single chemicals and complex chemical matrixes are factors to be considered in producing robust fish and a healthy aquaculture sector. The industry must also consider ethical, environmental and economic issues and optimize feed management practices. This review summarizes current knowledge on European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) nutritional requirements, presents current feed management practices for this species, gives insights on a secure framework for using plant ingredients in exchange for traditional marine raw materials and outlines its growth potential through a meta‐analysis of the best‐performance results available in peer‐reviewed scientific publications for this species. As the best‐performing fish were mostly those fed high fish meal fish oil control diets, the summarized results have the potential to be used as a quality control for benchmarking future scientific research in this fish species.  相似文献   

10.
Significant efforts should be devoted to reducing waste outputs from aquaculture operations in order to lower the environmental impacts of aquaculture in many parts of the world. Since most aquaculture wastes are ultimately from dietary origin, reduction of waste outputs should first be through improvements of diet formulation and feeding strategies. The first step in the production of feeds producing less solid waste is to eliminate poorly digestible ingredients (such as whole grain or grain by-products used as binders and fillers in the feed formulae) and to use highly digestible ingredients with good binding properties. Further reduction of solid waste can then be achieved through careful selection of the ingredients to improve apparent digestibility and the nutrient balance of the feed. Nitrogen waste outputs can be reduced through the reduction of the digestible protein to digestible energy (DP/DE) ratio of the diet. Phosphorus waste outputs can be reduced through careful selection of the ingredients and optimization of the digestible phosphorus content of the diet to meet the requirement of the fish but avoid greatly exceeding this required level. Finally, feeding practices that minimize feed wastage should be adopted since feed wastage can have a very significant impact on waste outputs from fish culture operations.  相似文献   

11.
Overpopulation and the pressure on land-based resources have driven the aquaculture sector to increase its production since the 1980s. To address such demands, new aquafeed technologies have been developed relying on natural and artificial ingredients that are commercially viable. In addition, current global sustainable initiatives require feed technologies to reduce the pressure on limited wild fisheries and minimize negative environmental effects. Although there are numerous studies on abalone nutrition, most tend to focus on animal growth and nutrient utilization. A more holistic research approach to ensure a sustainable future for this industry will require the development of feeds that provide integrated nutrition and health benefits. In this review, we aim to synthesize the most recent scientific literature on the nutritional and health benefits and shortcomings of two main abalone feeding approaches (seaweed and formulated feeds) within aquaculture production practices. We also identify major research gaps and future directions for the development of sustainable abalone feeds.  相似文献   

12.
For the commercial culture of the three‐spot cichlid (Amphilophus trimaculatus), it is important to have available a set of protein and lipid ingredients suitable for feed manufacturing, which allow to optimize the culture at affordable costs. The in vitro digestibility was evaluated with pH‐stat technique, using stomach and intestine multi‐enzymatic extracts from A. trimaculatus juveniles. The digestion of protein ingredients was taken place both in acid and in alkaline conditions, quantifying the total of free amino acids at the end of the hydrolysis, whereas the digestion of lipid ingredients was taken place only in alkaline conditions. The digestive enzymes of this species showed a better affinity to raw materials of animal origin such as beef meal, fish meal and premium chicken meal, which presented better digestibility. The best lipid ingredient that could be used is the fish oil. However, it is possible to use ingredients from the plant sources, such as soy or cereals, and vegetable oils such as olive, corn or soy oil. It is necessary to complement this study in vitro with the digestibility analysis in vivo, in order to determine the inclusion percentages in feeds and costs and therefore to develop an efficient feed formulation for the aquaculture of A. trimaculatus.  相似文献   

13.
牛津  赵伟 《水产学报》2022,46(10):1776-1800
凡纳滨对虾(Penaeus vannamei)是我国最主要的海水对虾类养殖品种,2021年海水养殖产量达到119.77万吨,占全国海水虾类养殖总产量的80%以上。目前,国内外对于凡纳滨对虾的营养需求与饲料研究已有较多报道,但是对于不同生长阶段的精准营养需求以及营养素和功能性饲料添加剂的相互关系研究仍不够深入。本文主要就其蛋白质、脂肪、碳水化合物和微量营养素的需求,蛋白源和脂肪源替代鱼粉和鱼油,功能性饲料添加剂应用等方面的研究进展进行综述,以期为凡纳滨对虾的精准营养研究及高效环保饲料的开发提供科学参考,从而推动其养殖业的健康可持续发展。  相似文献   

14.
随着水产养殖业的高速发展,鱼粉作为优质水产饲料的原料在国内有着很大需求。为提高鱼粉生产的效率、提升鱼粉成品的品质,研制了一种高品质鱼粉加工装置。该装置优化了加工工艺和加工设备,精准控制鱼粉加工过程中蒸煮、压榨、干燥环节的工艺参数,通过引入蛋白质检测装置,精准控制蒸煮环节温度,以此降低蛋白质变质现象;采用双级干燥工艺和脂肪检测装置来降低鱼粉的含水量和脂肪含量。成品鱼粉品质的测定试验表明,该装置生产出的鱼粉与传统加工装置生产的鱼粉相比,蛋白质含量提高11%,脂肪含量降低17%。通过饲养试验进一步验证了鱼粉品质的优越性。从渔业可持续发展的角度来看,高品质鱼粉加工装置具有较好的市场前景。  相似文献   

15.
吉红  田晶晶 《水产学报》2014,38(9):1650-1665
鱼粉、鱼油资源的短缺促使全球水产养殖业积极寻找其替代原料,而探究鱼粉、鱼油与其替代物之间的差异尤为重要,其中最主要的差异就是高不饱和脂肪酸(highly unsaturated fatty acids,HUFAs)是否存在及其含量多少。HUFAs是一类碳原子数目≥20、双键数≥3的脂肪酸,具有为动物提供能量、构成细胞膜组分、形成高生物活性物质、调控脂质代谢和免疫功能等重要作用,主要存在于鱼油和某些类别的微藻中。淡水鱼类具备自身合成HUFAs的能力,因此,一般认为HUFAs不是淡水鱼类的必需脂肪酸,无需通过饲料提供。但已有研究指出,饲料中添加一定量的HUFAs能够对淡水鱼类产生积极的营养作用,表明淡水鱼类的脂肪酸营养理论尚需进一步完善。本文综述了HUFAs在淡水鱼类生长、脂质代谢、健康免疫、繁殖特性等方面发挥作用的相关研究结果,明确提出淡水鱼类需要摄取一定水平的外源性HUFAs,指出在当前淡水鱼饲料中普遍使用HUFAs相对缺乏的蛋白源和油脂源的背景之下,HUFAs对淡水鱼类的作用应受到关注。最后,本文对今后淡水鱼类HUFAs营养的研究方向,以及新的HUFAs油脂源的开发前景进行了展望。  相似文献   

16.
The spotted rose snapper (Lutjanus guttatus) and bullseye puffer (Sphoeroides annulatus) are fish species from the tropical Eastern Pacific for which controlled production of larvae and juveniles has been accomplished in recent years. Diverse topics relating to their biology and aquaculture production are currently under study, in particular the nutrition and feeding aspects required to formulate practical feeds and rearing protocols. Improvements in larval growth and survival are possible by feeding live food organisms with natural or enhanced essential fatty acids content and highly digestible artificial microdiets. The ontogeny of the digestive tract and the expression and activity of digestive enzymes have been described for S. annulatus larvae. The effect of various protein and lipid levels on growth and feed utilization has been studied in juvenile and on-growing fish. Both species have carnivorous feeding habits and require high levels of protein in their diets, from 40% to 45% (dry weight) in spotted rose snapper and above 50% in bullseye puffer, with the younger stages requiring the highest protein levels. Encouraging results have been obtained in feeding experiments with different sources of dietary protein from animal and plant origin to evaluate their suitability as feed ingredients in practical diets. Optimization of fish culture practices through feeding management has also been investigated. Trials with various fish densities and feeding frequencies in intensive culture systems are providing information to improve feed utilization and growth in on-growing fish. Further research is underway to evaluate factors in broodstock nutrition which have an impact on egg and larval quality, and into the use of various commercially available oil sources in on-growing diets. In this paper, the results on nutrition and feeding research with both species are reviewed and research needs to support their commercial production in the region are discussed.  相似文献   

17.
This study was performed to evaluate the effect of replacing fish meal with local by‐products on Clarias gariepinus growth performance, feed utilization and body composition. A control diet contained 50% of fish meal. In four other diets, fish meal was partially replaced by vegetable and animal protein blend composed of sunflower oil cake, soybean oil cake, groundnut oil cake, bean meal, chicken viscera and blood meal. The study was conducted in a recirculating water system at a mean temperature of 23.6°C. The five test diets were compared with a commercial diet developed for African catfish. All diets were balanced to be equal in gross energy (19 kJ g−1) and crude protein (40%). The experimental groups were fed in triplicate for 8 weeks, increasing fish weight from about 6.2 g at start to 52.3 g in the end. Best specific growth rate (SGR=3.4), feed efficiency (FE=1.3) and protein efficiency ratio (PER=3) were obtained with the control diet (diet 50% fish meal), although there were no significant differences between the group of fish fed the control diet and those fed diets based on groundnut oil cake or bean meal, whereas SGR (2.17), FE (0.85) and PER (1.95) were significantly (P<0.01) lower in fish fed diet containing sunflower oil cake. No significant differences (P<0.05) were found in fish fed commercial diet and diets containing bean meal or groundnut oil cake. Groundnut oil cake or bean meal can thus replace at least 50% of fish meal in the diet of Clarias fingerlings without amino acid supplementation. Because of its economic importance and its potential in animal nutrition sunflower oil cake is still an interesting feed ingredient, but its efficiency should be improved by various processing techniques. African catfish can utilize efficiently a diet with low percentage of animal protein without growth reduction.  相似文献   

18.
Cannabis sativa is a plant that produces an oil with psychoactive and stress reduction effects and thus illegal in many nations. Lately, the beneficial properties of the plant extract are becoming better understood and perceptions are changing. As the aquaculture industry matures from a primitive extensive pond system to an industrialized intensive system, fish stress and disease incidence are increasing, with negative economic results. A nutritional ingredient that could reduce stress and disease incidence in aquacultured fish would thus be opportune. In the present work we investigated whether ether extracted cannabis oil would relieve stress, improve growth and feed conversion, and/or improve haematological indicators of disease resistance. Three diets were made to contain either soy oil, industrial hemp oil or cannabis oil and offered to tilapia for 8 weeks. At termination, survival, growth, feed conversion and blood parameters were assessed. Fish were returned to their tanks, offered the same feeds as during the experiment and respiration assessed. Cannabis extract was found to increase metabolism and thus increase feed conversion. On the other hand, cannabis had no effect on blood cell counts, total plasma protein, haematocrit or lysozyme activity. Results thus suggest that cannabis does not improve immune response of tilapia or body composition but does reduce growth rate by increasing metabolic rate.  相似文献   

19.
本研究旨在探讨红鳍东方鲀(Takifugu rubripes)幼鱼对红鱼粉、白鱼粉、豆粕、菜粕、花生粕、棉粕、玉米酒糟蛋白(DDGS)和肉骨粉中干物质、粗蛋白、粗脂肪、氨基酸、总能和总磷的表观消化率。实验饲料由70%的基础饲料和30%的待测饲料原料组成,并添加0.1%的三氧化二钇(Y2O3)作为外源添加剂,选取平均体重为37.90 g的红鳍东方鲀幼鱼,随机分成8组,每组3个重复,每个重复30尾鱼,按照不同处理分别投喂相应饲料,采用虹吸法收集粪便。结果显示,白鱼粉、红鱼粉和豆粕的干物质表观消化率分别为70.54%、69.02%和60.37%,显著高于菜粕、棉粕及DDGS(P<0.05);粗蛋白的表观消化率为50.91%~92.78%,肉骨粉粗蛋白表观消化率最低(50.91%),显著低于白鱼粉、红鱼粉、豆粕、菜粕、花生粕和DDGS(P<0.05),各待测饲料原料中总氨基酸表观消化率的变化趋势与粗蛋白的表观消化率基本一致;粗脂肪的表观消化率为70.6%~94.19%,白鱼粉粗脂肪表观消化率最高(94.19%),显著高于棉粕和肉骨粉(P<0.05);能量的表观消化率为30.58%~90.01%,白鱼粉、红鱼粉、豆粕和花生粕总能的表观消化率最高(76.26%~90.01%)(P<0.05);磷的表观消化率为9.13%~68.14%,白鱼粉和红鱼粉的总磷表观消化率最高(分别为66.98%和68.14%)(P<0.05)。白鱼粉、红鱼粉的各种营养成分的表观消化率均较佳,肉骨粉及棉粕各种营养成分的表观消化率相对较差;豆粕及花生粕的粗蛋白消化率及必需氨基酸的消化率优于其他植物蛋白,菜粕次之。  相似文献   

20.
Redclaw crayfish (Cherax quadricarinatus, von Martens 1868) is a freshwater decapod crustacean with a number of biological and commercial attributes that make it an excellent aquaculture species. The redclaw aquaculture industry has been growing rapidly since the mid‐1980s in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Redclaw aquaculture is mostly in extensive pond systems, but interest in developing more intensive systems is increasing. To support continued intensification, development of high‐quality practical diet formulations and information about redclaw nutrition requirements are necessary. A number of studies have determined optimum dietary protein and lipid requirements for juvenile redclaw. However, there is limited information on essential amino acid and fatty acid requirements. Several studies report the presence of various digestive enzymes that have been linked to the ability of the species to digest a wide range of dietary components. Furthermore, as in many other aquaculture species, there is a need to replace fishmeal with other protein sources. A number of studies explored the possibility of replacing fish meal with various terrestrial plant sources of protein and lipids and showed that redclaw can be offered diets containing low‐cost, plant‐based ingredients without compromising survival, growth and, to a certain extent, reproduction. Formulated diets containing less expensive, plant ‐ based ingredients will contribute to a more profitable and environmentally sustainable redclaw aquaculture industry. Finally, there is also a paucity of information on vitamin and mineral requirements of redclaw and little information on nutrient requirements of broodstock. For the redclaw aquaculture industry to thrive, we need to have a better understanding of nutrient requirements at all life stages.  相似文献   

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