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1.
Subsoil compaction is persistent and can affect important soil functions including soil productivity. The aim of this study was to develop recommendations on how to avoid subsoil compaction for soils exposed to traffic by machinery at field capacity. We measured the vertical stress in the tyre–soil contact area for two traction tyres at ca. 30‐ and 60‐kN wheel loads on a loamy sand at field capacity. Data on resulting stress distributions were combined with those from the literature for five implement tyres tested at a range of inflation pressures and wheel loads. The vertical stress in the soil profile was then predicted using the Söhne model for all tests in the combined data set. The predicted stress at 20 cm depth correlated with the maximum stress in the contact area, tyre inflation pressure, tyre–soil contact area and mean ground pressure. At 100 cm depth, the predicted vertical stress was primarily determined by wheel load, but an effect of the other factors was also detected. Based on published recommendations for allowable stresses in the soil profile, we propose the ‘50‐50 rule’: At water contents around field capacity, traffic on agricultural soil should not exert vertical stresses in excess of 50 kPa at depths >50 cm. Our combined data provide the basis for the ‘8‐8 rule’: The depth of the 50‐kPa stress isobar increases by 8 cm for each additional tonne increase in wheel load and by 8 cm for each doubling of the tyre inflation pressure. We suggest that farmers use this simple rule for evaluating the sustainability of any planned traffic over moist soil.  相似文献   

2.
The spectacular increase in the weight of self-propelled harvesters since the early 1980s also applies to trailed implements such as slurry spreaders, compost spreaders, cutter-blowers and general farm trailers. With axle loads exceeding 10 tonnes/axle (tandem 20 tonnes, tridem 27 tonnes), risks of severe compaction can now be expected, not only in field crops but also in grassland. Calculation tables for accurately evaluating contact surfaces of transport tyre, given their properties, load and inflation pressure, are insufficient at the present time. Equations for traction tyres are not suitable for trailer tyres.To overcome this deficiency, contact areas in the field were recorded on 19 sites, from soft to hard surfaces, using 24 different trailer tyres, with varying loads and inflation pressures. The regression calculations for evaluating the contact area apply to a total of 143 measurements.The dimensions of the tyre (width × unladen diameter), the load on the wheel and the inflation pressure are all highly significant variables for evaluation of the soil contact area. Considering the average residual standard deviation for each regression calculation, the best approximations are achieved by taking into account the tyre structure (cross-ply and radial), the width of tyre for cross-ply tyres and the type of tyre, in the case of a radial tyres (low profile or terra profile).Moreover, contrary to expectations, observations show that with low levels of load, reducing inflation pressure can also reduce the contact area.As regards soil hardness, observations show that there is no direct link between a hard soil and a reduced contact area; this relationship does not appear to be linear. The calculations are considered to be reliable on semi-firm to firm soil, frequently found on temporary grassland or natural grassland (penetration resistance 6.5–25.0 MPa).  相似文献   

3.
Heavy sugarbeet harvesters may compact subsoil. But it is very difficult to study this by field experiments that resemble agricultural practice. Therefore, an analysis was made by a finite element method (FEM) for a relevant calcaric fluvial soil profile, the mechanical properties of which were largely known. Measuring data of this Lobith loam soil includes preconsolidation stress, compression index and swelling index, all as a function of depth. Using these three types of soil parameters calculations have been done for tyre sizes, inflation pressures and wheel loads that occur with heaviest sugarbeet harvesters available on the European market in 1999. Because no values on soil cohesion were available, the calculations were done for several cohesion levels. The results include the detection of regions with Mohr–Coulomb plasticity and regions with cap plasticity (compaction hardening). For the soil studied—a typical soil strength profile for arable land with ploughpan in the Netherlands in the autumn of 1977—all studied combinations of wheel load and inflation pressure did not induce compaction in and below the ploughpan. The size of the region with Mohr–Coulomb plasticity decreased with increasing cohesion. It appeared from a sensitivity analysis that, although soil modelling may use a great number of soil parameters, the most important parameters seem to be: preconsolidation stress and cohesion. There is an urgent need for data of these parameters that are measured on a great range of subsoils and subsoil conditions.  相似文献   

4.
Subsoil compaction is a severe problem mainly because its effects have been found to be long-lasting and difficult to correct. It is better to avoid subsoil compaction than to rely on alleviating the compacted structure afterwards. Before recommendations to avoid subsoil compaction can be given, the key variables and processes involved in the machinery–subsoil system must be known and understood. Field traffic-induced subsoil compaction is discussed to determine the variables important to the prevention of the compaction capability of running gear. Likewise, technical choices to minimise the risk of subsoil compaction are reviewed. According to analytical solutions and experimental results the stress in the soil under a loaded wheel decreases with depth. The risk of subsoil compaction is high when the exerted stresses are higher than the bearing capacity of the subsoil. Soil wetness decreases the bearing capacity of soil. The most serious sources of subsoil compaction are ploughing in the furrow and heavy wheel loads applied at high pressure in soft conditions. To prevent (sub)soil compaction, the machines and equipment used on the field in critical conditions should be adjusted to actual strength of the subsoil by controlling wheel/track loads and using low tyre inflation pressures. Recommendations based on quantitative guidelines for machine/soil interactions should be available for different wheel load/ground pressure combinations and soil conditions.  相似文献   

5.
The relative importance of wheel load and tyre inflation pressure on topsoil and subsoil stresses has long been disputed in soil compaction research. The objectives of the experiment presented here were to (1) measure maximum soil stresses and stress distribution in the topsoil for different wheel loads at the same recommended tyre inflation pressure; (2) measure soil stresses at different inflation pressures for the given wheel loads; and (3) measure subsoil stresses and compare measured and simulated values. Measurements were made with the wheel loads 11, 15 and 33 kN at inflation pressures of 70, 100 and 150 kPa. Topsoil stresses were measured at 10 cm depth with five stress sensors installed in disturbed soil, perpendicular to driving direction. Contact area was measured on a hard surface. Subsoil stresses were measured at 30, 50 and 70 cm depth with sensors installed in undisturbed soil. The mean ground contact pressure could be approximated by the tyre inflation pressure (only) when the recommended inflation pressure was used. The maximum stress at 10 cm depth was considerably higher than the inflation pressure (39% on average) and also increased with increasing wheel load. While tyre inflation pressure had a large influence on soil stresses measured at 10 cm depth, it had very little influence in the subsoil (30 cm and deeper). In contrast, wheel load had a very large influence on subsoil stresses. Measured and simulated values agreed reasonably well in terms of relative differences between treatments, but the effect of inflation pressure on subsoil stresses was overestimated in the simulations. To reduce soil stresses exerted by tyres in agriculture, the results show the need to further study the distribution of stresses under tyres. For calculation of subsoil stresses, further validations of commonly used models for stress propagation are needed.  相似文献   

6.
The use of heavy machinery is increasing in agriculture, which induces increased risks of subsoil compaction. Hence, there is a need for technical solutions that reduce the compaction risk at high total machine loads. Three field experiments were performed in order to study the effects of dual wheels, tandem wheels and tyre inflation pressure on stress propagation in soil. Vertical soil stress was measured at three different depths by installing probes into the soil horizontally from a dug pit. In one experiment, also the stress distribution below the tyre was measured. Beneath the dual wheels, vertical stresses at 0.15 and 0.3 m depth were lower between the two wheels than under the centre of each wheel, despite the gap between the wheels being small (0.1 m). At 0.5 m depth, vertical stress beneath the wheels was the same as between the two wheels. The stress interaction from the two wheels was weak, even in the subsoil. Accordingly, measured stresses at 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7 m depth were highest under the centre of each axle centre line of tandem wheels, and much lower between the axles. For a wheel load of 86 kN, tyre inflation pressure significantly affected stress at 0.3 m depth, but not at greater depths. Stress directly below the tyre, measured at 0.1 m depth, was unevenly distributed, both in driving direction and perpendicular to driving direction, and maximum stress was considerably higher than tyre inflation pressure. Calculations of vertical stress based on Boussinesq's equation for elastic materials agreed well with measurements. A parabolic or linear contact stress distribution (stress declines from the centre to the edge of the contact area) was a better approximation of the contact stress than a uniform stress distribution. The results demonstrate that stress in the soil at different depths is a function of the stress on the surface and the contact area, which in turn are functions of wheel load, wheel arrangement, tyre inflation pressure, contact stress distribution and soil conditions. Soil stress and soil compaction are a function of neither axle load nor total vehicle load. This is of great importance for practical purposes. Reducing wheel load, e.g. by using dual or tandem wheels, also allows tyre inflation pressure to be reduced. This reduces the risk of subsoil compaction.  相似文献   

7.
Subsoil compaction is a major problem in modern agriculture caused by the intensification of agricultural production and the increase in weight of agricultural machinery. Compaction in the subsoil is highly persistent and leads to deterioration of soil functions. Wheel load‐carrying capacity (WLCC) is defined as the maximum wheel load for a specific tyre and inflation pressure that does not result in soil stress in excess of soil strength. The soil strength and hence WLCC is strongly influenced by soil matric potential (h). The aim of this study was to estimate the seasonal dynamics in WLCC based on in situ measurements of h, measurements of precompression stress at various h and simulations of soil stress. In this work, we concentrated on prevention of subsoil compaction. Calculations were made for different tyres (standard and low‐pressure top tyres) and for soil under different tillage and cropping systems (mouldboard ploughing, direct drilling, permanent grassland), and the computed WLCC was compared with real wheel loads to obtain the number of trafficable days (NTD) for various agricultural machines. Wheel load‐carrying capacity was higher for the top than the standard tyres, demonstrating the potential of tyre equipment in reducing compaction risks. The NTD varied between years and generally decreased with increasing wheel load of the machinery. The WLCC simulations presented here provide a useful and easily interpreted tool to guide the avoidance of soil compaction.  相似文献   

8.
The initially high level of soil compaction in some direct sowing systems might suggest that the impact of subsequent traffic would be minimal, but data have not been consistent. In the other hand on freshly tilled soils, traffic causes significant increments in soil compaction. The aim of this paper was to quantify the interaction of the soil cone index and rut depth induced by traffic of two different weight tractors in two tillage regimes: (a) soil with 10 years under direct sowing system and (b) soil historically worked in conventional tillage system. Treatments included five different traffic frequencies (0, 1, 3, 5 and 10 passes repeatedly on the same track). The work was performed in the South of the Rolling Pampa region, Buenos Aires State, Argentina at 34°55′S, 57°57′W. Variables measured were (1) cone index in the 0–600 mm depth profile and (2) rut depth. Tyre sizes and rut depth/tyre width ratio are particularly important respect to compaction produced in the soil for different number of passes. Until five passes of tractor (2WD), ground pressure is responsible of the topsoil compaction. Until five passes the tyre with low rut depth/tyre width ratio reduced topsoil compaction. Finally, the farmer should pay attention to the axle load, the tyre size and the soil water content at the traffic moment.  相似文献   

9.
The objective of this study was to compare predicted stresses with measured stresses within the soil profile underneath a tractor rear tyre as affected by soil type, dynamic load, and contact pressure. The major principal stress, octahedral normal stress, and octahedral shearing stress were compared. A three-dimensional non-linear finite element model was used to predict soil profile stresses while stress state transducers were used to measure soil stresses beneath a moving tyre in the field. Principal stresses, octahedral normal stresses, and octahedral shearing stresses were calculated from the measured stresses. Predicted values of soil stress obtained from the finite element model were compared against measured values obtained from field experiments. Generally, the results from the finite element model were found to be compatible with the experimental results. The study of compaction on two soils indicated that, at the same dynamic load, compaction of clay soils was far more severe than that of coarsely textured soils.  相似文献   

10.
This paper aims to provide guidance for field practitioners on the vulnerability of different subsoils to compaction under different field conditions and on the tyre pressures necessary to reduce or avoid damage. It also indicates ways of identifying situations where some compaction alleviation may be necessary to improve subsoil conditions and methods for alleviating subsoil compaction problems, without increasing the risk of more extensive compaction damage in the future.  相似文献   

11.
《Soil & Tillage Research》1987,10(4):319-330
In intensive arable farming, more and bigger tyres are having to be used in order to support the ever increasing loads to be transported. In Dutch agriculture, to keep rut formation and subsoil compaction within critical limits, it is assumed that tyre inflation pressure should be reduced to 100 kPa or less. However, it is shown that reducing the inflation pressure leads to an exponential decrease in tyre loading capacity. To compensate for this phenomenon, bigger, i.e. wider tyres, with more loading capacity at these low inflation pressures, are needed.The rate of soil-pressure reduction with depth is slower for wider tyres, which is in principle a disadvantage where subsoil compaction risks are concerned. In practice one may avoid problems by using tyres with dimensions that ensure a sufficiently low level of pressure in the tyre-soil contact area. A low, harmless, level of pressure is then reached in the lower tilth and subsoil.Applying low-ground-pressure (LGP) systems often means that special wheel equipment is needed, such as steered wheels in a tandem configuration, 4-wheel drive, etc.  相似文献   

12.
Abstract

In this paper we describe the susceptibility of Swedish subsoils to compaction and discuss strategies for prevention of traffic-induced subsoil compaction against the background of experiences from wheeling experiments conducted in Sweden during recent years. The susceptibility of Swedish subsoils to compaction must be considered high because subsoils are often wet during field operations and machinery with high wheel loads is used. The risk of subsoil compaction could be reduced by technical solutions, such as the use of dual and tandem wheels instead of single wheels, low tyre inflation pressure or tracks. However, each of these solutions has its limitations. Results from several wheeling experiments on different soils indicate that residual deformations occur even when the applied stress is lower than the precompression stress. Hence, soil compaction could not be avoided completely by limiting the applied stress to the precompression stress.  相似文献   

13.
The loads imposed by modern farm machinery have considerable potential to increase subsoil stress. Within the context of economically viable and environmentally sustainable systems, the practices associated with subsoil damage and methods for avoidance are identified. The greatest potential for damage is on fragile, wet or loosened subsoils combined with high wheel or track loads and contact pressures that create noticeable ruts in the topsoil. In-furrow ploughing increases this potential considerably by placing loads on the subsoil. Measures to avoid this potential involve a whole farm approach and an understanding of the many interactions between cropping systems and machinery. Alternatives to in-furrow ploughing that involve working from the surface and building a protective topsoil are discussed. Key measures to reduce the risk to subsoils involve a clear understanding of tyre load and inflation data and simple on-farm methods of achieving this are suggested. Although avoidance has the potential to reduce the risk, confinement of damage to specific strips in the field is seen as a realistic alternative. Controlled traffic operations, together with precision guidance, offer an economic means by which compaction on the cropped area can be avoided. The most effective route to improvement in soil care across the European Union (EU) is an appropriate management structure coupled with a best practice framework.  相似文献   

14.
A critical-state finite element model was used to simulate compaction under single and dual tyres and tracks. The compaction involved deformations at three different scales, from small tyres with a contact area of about 70 cm2 (single tyre) supporting a load of about 50 kg, to large tyres of about 1.2 m2 (dual tyres) supporting a load of about 4500 kg. The predictions were compared with measured values for several different quantities. These included: rut depths; vertical displacement and shear strain: vertical stresses; and, void ratios and precompression stress measured on sampled soil cores. In general, the predictions and measurements agreed reasonably well. However, the agreement between prediction and measurement depended on the precision of measurements, soil disturbance, and the volume of soil involved in a measurement relative to the volume of soil influenced by the tyre or track. This study shows that the critical-state finite element model is useful, offering insight into the compaction process, the dependence of compaction on soil strength and compressibility, and practical implications for soil management.  相似文献   

15.
In a field experiment to determine the direct and indirect effect on soil structure, of sub-surface piped drainage as compared with natural surface drainage only, in ploughed and unploughed soil, a factorial systematic design with four replicated blocks was used. Structural changes were monitored during 8 months of natural rain and finally irrigation, by measuring surface heights and soil strength (penetration resistance) in relation to moisture content and matric suction, at plough sole depth (27 cm). A compaction test using a tractor with differentially loaded wheels, was applied at various times after irrigation, measuring the resulting wheel sinkage and wet density of the soil. The effects of the drainage treatments were found to be temporary, except a ‘crusting’ effect during the drying of the unploughed surface drained soil. The ploughed soil with sub-surface drainage showed greater frost heave than the undrained soil. The soil strength at 7.5-22.5 cm. depth was linearly related to the matric suction within the range of –3 to 20 cm-water. The compaction data for the unploughed soil suggested relationships between matric suction, sinkage, and wet density, but complicated interactions prevented any general conclusion. In the ploughed soil, compaction data established the beneficial effects of subsurface drainage in reducing damage from tractor traffic, decreasing wheel sinkage and reducing compaction both below and 16 cm from the track edge. A rise in matric suction of 10 cm-water, in the range 2-24 cm-water was, on the average, as effective in reducing rutting as a wheel load reduction of 670 kg (0.54 kg/cm2 reduction of tyre inflation pressure). It was concluded that for clay soils having a temporary excess moisture, draining the water table to below 50-60 cm depth should be recommended as a precautionary measure to minimize structural damage.  相似文献   

16.
M. Gysi   《Soil & Tillage Research》2001,61(3-4):133-142
Subsoil compaction has become a problem of world-wide concern, especially under highly mechanised agricultural practices. Severe structural degradation impedes plant growth. Therefore, compaction must be limited to layers which can be structurally reclaimed with reasonable effort by tillage. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of a single pass with a sugar beet harvester on the soil properties of an unploughed Eutric Cambisol. In autumn 1998 and 1999 field measurements and laboratory testing were carried out in Frauenfeld, Switzerland. The wheel loads were 107 kN in 1998 and 108 kN in 1999. Changes of bulk density, total porosity, macroporosity and pre-consolidation pressure show that compaction effects were restricted to the topsoil (0–0.25 m depth). Below 0.25 m depth no changes were measured. The compaction beneath the tyre was modelled with a two phase finite element model in the framework of critical state soil mechanics. The model predicts the degree and depth of compaction of an Eutric Cambisol caused by a single pass in Switzerland. Modelled data and field results agree quite well.  相似文献   

17.
A computerized empirical model for estimating the crop yield losses caused by machinery-induced soil compaction and the value of various countermeasures is presented, along with some examples of estimations made with it. The model is based mainly on results of Swedish field trials, and predicts the effects of compaction in a tillage system that includes mouldboard ploughing. It is designed for use at farm level and predicts four categories of effects: (1) Effects of recompaction after ploughing. The calculations are based on the wheel track distribution in the field and the relationship between “degree of compactness” of the plough layer and crop yield. (2) Effects of plough layer compaction persisting after ploughing. Crop yield losses are estimated from traffic intensity in Mgkm ha−1 (Mgkm = the product of the weight of a machine and the distance driven), soil moisture content, tyre inflation pressure and clay content. (3) Effects of subsoil compaction. The calculations are similar to those presented under point (2), but only vehicles with high axle load are considered. These effects are the most persistent. (4) Effects of traffic in ley crops. The estimations are based on wheel track distribution, soil moisture content and several other factors.  相似文献   

18.
Research was conducted to develop a knowledge-based decision support system to assess the degree of compaction in agricultural soils. The experiments were conducted in a laboratory soil bin at the Asian Institute of Technology in three soils, namely, clay, silty clay loam, and silty loam. The research was likewise aimed to quantify the effect of tire variables (section width, diameter, inflation pressure); soil variables (soil moisture content, initial cone index, initial bulk density); and external variables (travel speed, axle load, number of tire passes) on soil compaction and to develop compaction models for soil compaction assessment. Dimensional analysis technique was used in the development of the compaction models.

The soil compaction models were found to provide good predictions of the bulk density and cone index. Using the compaction models and other secondary data, the decision support system was developed to assess the compaction status of the soil in relation to crop yield. The predictions by the decision support system were validated with actual field data from earlier studies and high correlation was observed. Thus, the output of the decision support system may be able to provide useful recommendations for appropriate soil management practices and solutions to site-specific soil compaction problems.  相似文献   


19.
The aim of this paper was to quantify soil compaction induced by tractor traffic on two tillage regimes: conventional tillage and direct drilling. Traffic was simulated with one pass of a conventional 2WD tractor, using four configurations of cross-ply rear tyres: 18.4–34, 23.1–30, 18.4–38 and 24.5–32, and four configurations of radial tyres 18.4R34, 23.1R 30, 18.4R 38 and 24.5R 32, with two ballast conditions used in each configuration. The experiment was conducted in the east of the Rolling Pampa region, Buenos Aires State, Argentina at 34°25′S, 59°15′W; altitude 22 m above sea level. Rut depth after traffic and soil bulk density and cone index in a 0–450-mm profile were measured before and after traffic. Considering topsoil level, in two tillage regimes, all treatments induced significant values of soil compaction as compared to the control plot without traffic. Subsoil compaction increased as total axle load increased and was independent of ground pressure. For the same tyre configuration, radial tyre caused less soil compaction than the cross-ply.  相似文献   

20.
Regression analysis of some factors influencing soil compaction   总被引：3，自引：0，他引：3  
Experiments were conducted in a laboratory soil bin, at the Regional Research Center of Asian Institute of Technology, to develop compaction models for a silty clay loam soil. The development of the models made use of dimensional analysis techniques. Three independent parameters were investigated: (1) tire variables (section width, diameter, inflation pressure), (2) soil variables (moisture content, initial cone index), and (3) external variables (travel speed, axle load, number of passes). Bulk density and cone index were considered as dependent variables. Results showed that axle load and number of tire passes were the most prominent factors which greatly influence soil compaction. Furthermore, soil moisture content, aspect ratio, and tire inflation pressure also revealed significant effects. The greatest soil compaction occurred during the first three passes of the tire. Soil compaction models were established and were found to provide good predictions. The trend established by the models signifies that general relationships can be established to predict soil compaction related to soil types. Furthermore, the models provided predictions at different soil and machine working conditions. Using the models, assessment of soil compaction can be made to develop a decision support system to establish useful recommendations for appropriate soil management practices and solutions to site-specific soil compaction problems.  相似文献   

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