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1.
《Wood material science & engineering》2013,8(4):163-169
Abstract One of the main objectives of thermal modification is to increase the biological durability of wood. In this study the fungal resistance of Norway spruce and Scots pine, thermally modified at 195°C and 210°C, was studied with a lap-joint field test. Untreated pine and spruce and pine impregnated with tributyl tin oxide (TBTO) and copper, chromium and arsenic (CCA) were selected as reference materials. The evaluations were carried out after 1, 2 and 9 years of exposure. After 1 and 2 years of exposure mainly discoloration was detected. Only the untreated pine was slightly affected by decay fungi. There were significant differences in the decay ratings of untreated and thermally modified wood materials after 9 years in the field. While the untreated wood materials were severely attacked by decay fungi or reached failure rating, only small areas of incipient decay were detected in the thermally modified samples. Thermally modified pine was slightly more decayed than thermally modified spruce. The only wood material without any signs of decay was CCA-treated pine, since some of the TBTO-treated pine samples were also moderately attacked by fungal decay. The results of the lap-joint test had a good correlation with mass losses in a laboratory test with brown-rot fungi. 相似文献
2.
《Wood material science & engineering》2013,8(3-4):105-114
Abstract Thermal modification has been developed for an industrial method to increase the biological durability and dimensional stability of wood. In this study the effects of thermal modification on resistance against soft- and brown-rot fungi of sapwood and heartwood of Scots pine and Norway spruce were investigated using laboratory test methods. Natural durability against soft-rot microfungi was determined according to CEN/TS 15083-2 (2005) by measuring the mass loss and modulus of elasticity (MOE) loss after an incubation period of 32 weeks. An agar block test was used to determine the resistance to two brown-rot fungi using two exposure periods. In particular, the effect of the temperature of the thermal modification was studied, and the results were compared with results from untreated pine and spruce samples. The decay resistance of reference untreated wood species (Siberian larch, bangkirai, merbau and western red cedar) was also studied in the soft-rot test. On average, the soft-rot and brown-rot tests gave quite similar results. In general, the untreated heartwood of pine was more resistant to decay than the sapwood of pine and the sapwood and heartwood of spruce. Thermal modification increased the biological durability of all samples. The effect of thermal modification seemed to be most effective within pine heartwood. However, very high thermal modification temperature over 230°C was needed to reach resistance against decay comparable with the durability classes of “durable” or “very durable” in the soft-rot test. The brown-rot test gave slightly better durability classes than the soft-rot test. The most durable untreated wood species was merbau, the durability of which could be evaluated as equal to the durability class “moderately durable”. 相似文献
3.
《Wood material science & engineering》2013,8(1):13-23
Abstract Thermal modification at elevated temperatures changes the chemical, biological and physical properties of wood. In this study, the effects of the level of thermal modification and the decay exposure (natural durability against soft-rot microfungi) on the modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR) of the sapwood and heartwood of Scots pine and Norway spruce were investigated with a static bending test using a central loading method in accordance with EN 408 (1995). The results were compared with four reference wood species: Siberian larch, bangkirai, merbau and western red cedar. In general, both the thermal modification and the decay exposure decreased the strength properties. On average, the higher the thermal modification temperature, the more MOE and MOR decreased with unexposed samples and increased with decayed samples, compared with the unmodified reference samples. The strength of bangkirai was least reduced in the group of the reference wood species. On average, untreated wood material will be stronger than thermally modified wood material until wood is exposed to decaying fungi. Thermal modification at high temperatures over 210°C very effectively prevents wood from decay; however, strength properties are then affected by thermal modification itself. 相似文献
4.
《Wood material science & engineering》2013,8(3-4):204-210
Abstract Untreated Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Norway spruce (Picea abies) samples were exposed above ground in a durability test for 6 years. The samples consisted of three pieces of wood, 22×95×500 mm, screwed together; two pieces lengthwise with a third piece overlapping. Weight was measured, to calculate moisture content (MC), and samples checked regularly for cracks and fungal growth. Parameters investigated were heartwood/sapwood (pine), annual ring orientation (spruce), stand site, annual ring width and density. Stand site, annual ring width and density had no influence on MC or fungal growth for either pine or spruce. Spruce samples with vertical annual rings had fewer cracks than samples with horizontal annual rings. Pine sapwood samples had a high MC and a large amount of rot fungi, while heartwood had a lower MC and no rot. Most spruce samples were similar to pine heartwood, except from a few samples that had high MC and fungal growth. Those were all sawn from the outer part of the log. Therefore, it can be stated that spruce sawn from the inner part has almost the same properties as pine heartwood, while spruce from the outer part of the log has similar properties to pine sapwood. 相似文献
5.
Andreas Otto Rapp 《Wood material science & engineering》2007,2(1):15-21
The durability of wood in ground contact is affected by numerous influences, such as substrate quality, climate and microflora of the soil, which need to be considered for the prediction of service life of wooden components to be used in the ground. In this study the influence of different soil substrates on the service life of Scots pine sapwood (Pinus sylvestris L.) and oak heartwood (Quercus petraea Liebl.) was investigated. Mini-stakes were exposed in six different soils at the test site of the Federal Research Centre for Forestry and Forest Products (BFH) in Hamburg, Germany. The effect of partly embedding the test samples in concrete or polyethylene films was also examined. After 3 years of exposure the decay rates for both wood species differed significantly between the soil substrates. Compost soil and fertilized test field soil induced the highest decay activity, whereas in pure sand the lowest decay rates were observed. Surprisingly, exposure in gravel also led to higher decay ratings than sand. Protective measures by means of concrete embedding and polyethylene films performed well during the first 2 years of exposure, but showed increasing decay rates in the third year. The overall decay rating for all soil types was higher for oak heartwood than for pine sapwood. The meaning of different soils, independent of other site influences, for service life prediction of wood is discussed, and the need for further studies on this topic is highlighted. 相似文献
6.
《Wood material science & engineering》2013,8(3-4):83-93
Abstract Differences in durability between heartwood and sapwood of Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] were investigated to determine wood qualities most favourable for use in outdoor constructions above ground. Trees grown on sites with either good or poor access to water were used. Seventy-eight specimens measuring 20 × 50 × 300?mm3 separated into heartwood and sapwood, half untreated, half painted, were exposed horizontally outdoors above ground for 5.5?years with the pith side up and the bark side down. Crack length and crack number were measured. Fungus growth and surface changes were visually estimated. Fungus type was determined by microscopic analysis. The main finding was that spruce heartwood had fewer and shorter cracks and less surface-discolouring fungus growth than sapwood. This was valid for both painted and untreated wood. After 2?years’ exposure, the cracks in sapwood (upper surface) were more than three times longer and about five times more numerous than in heartwood for both painted and untreated boards. Microscopic study showed that surface discoloration was due mainly to Aureobasidium pullulans, together with a few other discolouring fungi. After 5.5?years, initial decay was established on the surface and in the end grain of four untreated test objects. 相似文献
7.
《Wood material science & engineering》2013,8(1):15-21
Abstract The durability of wood in ground contact is affected by numerous influences, such as substrate quality, climate and microflora of the soil, which need to be considered for the prediction of service life of wooden components to be used in the ground. In this study the influence of different soil substrates on the service life of Scots pine sapwood (Pinus sylvestris L.) and oak heartwood (Quercus petraea Liebl.) was investigated. Mini-stakes were exposed in six different soils at the test site of the Federal Research Centre for Forestry and Forest Products (BFH) in Hamburg, Germany. The effect of partly embedding the test samples in concrete or polyethylene films was also examined. After 3 years of exposure the decay rates for both wood species differed significantly between the soil substrates. Compost soil and fertilized test field soil induced the highest decay activity, whereas in pure sand the lowest decay rates were observed. Surprisingly, exposure in gravel also led to higher decay ratings than sand. Protective measures by means of concrete embedding and polyethylene films performed well during the first 2 years of exposure, but showed increasing decay rates in the third year. The overall decay rating for all soil types was higher for oak heartwood than for pine sapwood. The meaning of different soils, independent of other site influences, for service life prediction of wood is discussed, and the need for further studies on this topic is highlighted. 相似文献
8.
Influence of wood moisture content and wood temperature on fungal decay in the field: observations in different micro-climates 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
In this study, Scots pine sapwood (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Douglas fir heartwood (Pseudotsuga menziesii Franco) specimens were exposed in double layer field trials at four different exposure sites and under different exposure
conditions (in total ten test sets). The material climate of wood in terms of wood moisture content (MC) and wood temperature
was automatically monitored over a period of 6 years and compared with the progress of decay. The aim of this study was to
highlight the interrelationship between microclimate, material climate, and decay as a basis for the establishment of dose-response
functions to be used for service life prediction of wood and wood-based products. Differences in resulting decay dynamics
between the test sites as well as between the different types of exposure were quantified and discussed with respect to corresponding
microclimatic and material climatic conditions. The time between the beginning of exposure and the first occurrence of visible
decay varied between the sites and influenced the total decay development. The fundamental importance of direct decay factors,
such as MC and wood temperature, were underlined and basic requirements for establishing dose-response-functions to be used
in service life prediction models were derived. 相似文献
9.
There are indications that the drying process may have negative effects on the natural durability of wood. The impact of various
drying processes on the durability of Scots pine lumber has been evaluated with mass loss in a decay test with brown rot fungus,
Coniophora puteana, as measure of the decay resistance of sapwood and inner and outer heartwood. Drying with or without steam conditioning was
performed in six different series: air drying, kiln drying at temperature ranges commonly used in Swedish sawmills at 70°C
and 90°C with two different regulation principles, and one high-temperature drying at 110°C. Durability varied considerably
both between and within boards. Sapwood showed considerable less durability than heartwood. No difference in durability was
found between inner heartwood and outer heartwood. Air-dried heartwood showed the highest durability compared to other drying
series. The lowest durability in sapwood and heartwood was found for series dried at the 90°C temperature level with high
material temperature early in drying. The interpretation is that the duration of high material temperature at high moisture
content (MC) is the critical combination for decay resistance in heartwood. Steam conditioning after drying decreased durability
in sapwood. 相似文献
10.
Scots pine sapwood (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Douglas fir heartwood (Pseudotsuga menziesii Franco) specimens were exposed in double layer field trials at 23 different European test sites under different exposure
conditions (in total 27 test sets). The material climate in terms of wood moisture content (MC) and wood temperature was automatically
monitored over a period of up to 7 years and compared with the progress of decay. The overall aim of this study was to establish
dose–response relationships between climate factors and decay as a basis for the service life prediction of wood. The “Scheffer
Climate Index” based on weather data collected at official meteorological stations at the different test sites poorly correlated
with the corresponding decay progress and was therefore not a suitable tool for estimating site-specific decay potential.
In contrast, the use of the combined material climatic parameters MC and wood temperature led to a feasible dose–response
function and turned out to be a useful basis for service life prediction of wood. 相似文献
11.
《Wood material science & engineering》2013,8(2):139-144
Abstract The heartwood and sapwood from Scots pine (PS), Norway spruce (PA), and Oriental spruce (PO) were tested for susceptibility to discoloring fungi and water uptake. In addition, annual ring width and density were measured. The methods used were Mycologg for testing growth of fungi and a modified version of EN 927-5 to investigate water uptake. For pine, the heartwood showed a lower water uptake and no discoloring fungi growing in the tests. The heartwood had a significantly higher density and smaller annual ring width than the sapwood. In PA the heartwood had significantly lower discoloration than sapwood. The total water uptake in g/m2 was significantly higher in sapwood, but not the calculated moisture content. As for wood properties, the density was significantly higher in sapwood compared to heartwood, although there were no differences in annual ring width. Regarding PO, differences in water uptake could be seen between sapwood and heartwood although the densities were similar. These results show that susceptibility to discoloring fungi and water uptake is hard to correlate to a single inherent property when looking at different wood species. 相似文献
12.
Studying the impregnation and distribution of oil-based preservative in dried wood is complicated as wood is a nonhomogeneous, hygroscopic and porous material, and especially of anisotropic nature. However, this study is important since it has influence on the durability of wood. To enhance the durability of thermally modified wood, a new method for preservative impregnation is introduced, avoiding the need for external pressure or vacuum. This article presents a study on preservative distribution in thermally treated Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) sapwood using computed tomography scanning, light microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. Secondary treatment of thermally modified wood was performed on a laboratory scale by impregnation with two types of preservatives, viz. Elit Träskydd (Beckers) and pine tar (tar), to evaluate their distribution in the wood cells. Preservative solutions were impregnated in the wood using a simple and effective method. Samples were preheated to 170 °C in a drying oven and immediately submerged in preservative solutions for simultaneous impregnation and cooling. Tar penetration was found higher than Beckers, and their distribution decreased with increasing sample length. Owing to some anatomical properties, uptake of preservatives was low in spruce. Besides, dry-induced interstitial spaces, which are proven important flow paths for seasoned wood, were not observed in this species. 相似文献
13.
Liquid water absorption in dried Norway spruce timber measured with CT scanning and viewed as a percolation process 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
Liquid flow in dried wood is complicated to study, since wood is a nonhomogeneous, hygroscopic-porous, anisotropic material. However, liquid flow is important to understand, since it has an influence on the durability of wood and on such processes like impregnation, drying, surface treatment, etc. In this study, simulations of liquid water absorption in wood as a fibre network, percolation, were compared with experimental water absorption in the longitudinal direction in spruce timber. With CT scanning, water distribution during liquid flow can be shown visually and measured by image processing. Liquid water absorption in end grain of spruce was measured with CT scanning after 1, 3, 7 and 14?days of liquid water absorption and shown as moisture content (MC) profiles in heartwood and sapwood. It was found that the amount of water absorbed could be expressed as a linear function of the square root of time. The slopes of the lines differed between sapwood and heartwood and also varied depending on the growth condition of the trees. The simulations according to the percolation method show generally good agreement with the measured results for sapwood. 相似文献
14.
3种不同处理方法对木材渗透性影响的研究 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
本文通过对长白鱼鳞云杉和臭冷杉生材分别进行普通气干处理和酒精置换处理以及对其气干材进行水浸处理,研究了这３种不同处理方法对木材气渗透性的影响及其影响机理。研究结果表明,长白鱼鳞云杉边材、心材和臭冷杉心村的生材经普通气干处理后,其气体渗透性较低,分别约为０．１１４、０．０４５和０．１１１ｄａｒｃｙ;长白鱼鳞云杉边材、心材和臭冷杉心材的生材经酒精置换处理后,其气体渗透性分别约为１１．７１３、０．０７４和０．１４４ｄａｒｃｙ,比普通气干处理对照组试样的平均渗透性分别增加约１０１．５倍、６２％和３０％,ｔ检验表明,前者差异非常显著,但后两者差异不显著;已气干１８个月的长白鱼鳞云杉边材、心材和臭冷杉心材经水浸处理后,其平均气体浸透性较处理前分别增加约８５％、４９％、６５．５％,ｔ检验表明差异均显著。长白鱼鳞云杉生材边材经 相似文献
15.
Tapani Hirvonen Joni Orava Niko Penttinen Katri Luostarinen Markku Hauta-Kasari Mika Sorjonen Kai-Erik Peiponen 《Wood Science and Technology》2014,48(5):995-1003
In this study, a comprehensive spectral image database of Nordic sawn timbers for public use was measured. Economically significant Finnish wood species birch (Betula sp.), Norway spruce (Picea abies) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) were chosen for inclusion in the database. The total of samples was 107 containing heartwood, sapwood, decayed wood, blue stain, mold, resin, early wood, late wood, knots, cracks, pith, reaction wood and bark. Board and crosscut samples were measured in frozen, melted and room-dried conditions. The reflectance of samples was measured over a 300- to 2,500-nm wavelength range. Additionally, the photoluminescence of samples excited by an ultraviolet B light source was measured. The spot size used was 250 μm with an 80 mm \(\times \) 200 mm imaging area, and produced all in all 44 million spectra. In this paper, examples of the possibilities of this spectral image database as a means of detection of the spatial distribution of aromatic lignin and the moisture content (MC) of nonfrozen timber were introduced and provided. From the results, it was found that it was possible to detect the lignin distribution from spectral images, and simple and robust methods for wood MC estimations were also introduced. 相似文献
16.
《Wood material science & engineering》2013,8(3):129-141
ABSTRACTEffects of climatic factors and material properties on the development of surface mould growth on wooden claddings were investigated in a laboratory experiment. Specimens of aspen (Populus tremula), Siberian larch (Larix Sibirica), American white oak (Querqus alba), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), Norway spruce (Picea abies) and thermally modified pine were incubated in eight climatic chambers at specified wetting periods (2 or 4?h per day), relative humidity (58–86%) and temperature conditions (10–27°C). Surface mould growth was assessed weekly for 13 weeks, and the results were evaluated statistically using Generalized Estimating Equations logistic regression models. All tested climatic factors had significant effects on the mould growth, and there were significant differences between the materials. The ranking of the materials varied with temperature and over time. Aspen, pine sapwood and oak were overall most susceptible to mould growth, and thermally modified pine least susceptible. There were significant differences between sapwood and heartwood for pine and spruce. The effect of density was tested on the spruce heartwood material, but was not found to be significant. The results can be used to further develop prediction models for mould growth on wooden claddings. 相似文献
17.
《Wood material science & engineering》2013,8(4):242-244
Abstract This study assessed the decay resistance of Pinus leucodermis wood to the brown-rot fungus Coniophora puteana. Based upon the median weight losses of 30.65% for heartwood and of 34.68% for sapwood obtained in the biological tests, both the heartwood and sapwood material examined was classified as not durable (durability class 5) according to the CEN/TS 15083-1 classification. Total extractives were low, 3.93% in heartwood and 1.00% in sapwood, while lignin content was 22.60% and 25.41% in heartwood and sapwood, respectively. It is highly recommended to use protective treatments before using P. leucodermis wood in outdoor conditions. 相似文献
18.
Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] heartwood and sapwood have differing wood properties, but are similar in appearance. An investigation was made
to see whether near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) could be used with multivariate statistics for separation between heartwood
and sapwood in dry state on tangential longitudinal surfaces. For classification of wood into sapwood and heartwood, partial
least square (PLS) regression was used. Orthogonal signal correction (OSC) filtering was used on the spectra. This study shows
that a separation of sapwood and heartwood of spruce is possible with NIR spectra measured in a laboratory environment. The
visible-wavelength spectra have significant influence on the predictive power of separation models between sapwood and heartwood
of spruce. All 44 specimens in the calibration set were correctly classified into heartwood and sapwood. Validation of the
model was done with a prediction set of 16 specimens, of which one was classified incorrectly. 相似文献
19.
Peroxidase activity and isoenzymes of fresh wood samples of the third shoot of 12-year old trees and from the sapwood, transition
zone and heartwood of c. 60-year old stems of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) were investigated. Wood samples were ground at −30°C, extracted, and the extracts concentrated c. 20-fold for peroxidase
activity assays (guaiacol method) and for IEF-PAGE. At least 11 major isoenzymes could be found in the gels. Even the heartwood
contained some peroxidase isoenzymes. Isoenzyme patterns of the juvenile wood did not change with the season. However, juvenile
wood showed the highest peroxidase activity at the end of the growing season. Peroxidase activity decreased from the outer
sapwood towards the heartwood. Thin sections of different wood zones stained for peroxidase revealed activity in ray parenchyma
and resin canal epithelial cells. Intensive staining was localised in the bordered pits of vertical and ray tracheids, and
in the end walls of ray parenchyma cells. 相似文献
20.
The aim of the study was to examine how the thickness and species of softwood influence cupping during cyclic conditions.
The study was conducted with full-scale test walls in laboratory conditions. On the basis of the results, the thickness and
species of softwood both have a significant influence on cupping of the cladding board. The boards made of Norway spruce were
considerably more resistant to cupping than those made of Scots pine sapwood. Boards made of Scots pine sapwood were more
likely to remain curved after each drying period. It appears probable that the cupping sensitivity of Scots pine sapwood affects
the durability of the cladding, e.g., causing cracking formation on the surface and peeling of the coating. From the curving
results, it is possible to estimate surface elongation and durability of the wood surface and of the coating in cyclic conditions. 相似文献