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1.
In 2002, the Malaysian government had banned the use of the hazardous herbicide, paraquat. Most growers perceive that paraquat is the most effective herbicide and provides the fastest mode of action to control weeds. An experiment was conducted at MAB Agriculture-Horticulture, Sepang, Selangor, Malaysia, from February 2004 to February 2005 to evaluate the efficacy and ability of the less hazardous herbicides, glufosinate ammonium and glyphosate, as an alternative to the hazardous herbicide, paraquat, in controlling weeds in immature oil palm (<3 years old). The results showed that paraquat needed high rates, 600 and 800 g ha−1, to control weeds effectively. However, lower rates of glufosinate ammonium (200 g ha−1) and glyphosate (400 g ha−1) gave excellent weed control. The results showed that the efficacy of glufosinate ammonium and glyphosate were much better than paraquat. The results also showed that, with no direct contact with the plants, paraquat, glufosinate ammonium, and glyphosate had no adverse effect on the vegetative and generative growth of oil palm in this study. These results proved that the less hazardous herbicides, glufosinate ammonium and glyphosate, could be used as an alternative to paraquat to control weeds in immature oil palm.  相似文献   

2.
研究了稻田施用氯氟吡氧乙酸后,其在水稻植株、糙米、稻壳、稻田土壤和田水中的残留动态。样品采用氢氧化钠-甲醇溶液振荡提取,二氯甲烷液液分配,甲酯化后经气相色谱-电子捕获检测器(GC-ECD)测定。结果表明:氯氟吡氧乙酸在水稻植株、稻田土壤、田水、糙米和稻壳中的平均 回收率在85.5% ~103.2%之间,相对标准偏差在1.9% ~9.9%之间;其最小检出量为2.0×10-12g, 在植株、糙米、稻壳、土壤和田水中的最低检测浓度分别为 0.005,0.02,0.005,0.002 mg/kg 和0.001 mg/L。2007和2008年在安徽潜山、广东广州两地的田间残留试验结果表明:氯氟吡氧乙酸在水稻植株中的降解半衰期为4.9 ~6.0 d,土壤中为5.5 ~8.6 d,田水中为11.0~13.8 d;收获的糙米中氯氟吡氧乙酸的最终残留量在未检出~0.13 mg/kg之间,均低于其在糙米上的最大残留限量(MRL)值0.2 mg/kg(中国)。建议5%氯氟吡氧乙酸可湿性粉剂用于防治水稻田杂草时,施药剂量按有效成分计不得超过168.8 g/hm2,于返青期施药1次。  相似文献   

3.
Novel inoculation and assessment methods for Ganoderma boninense infection of oil palm are reported. The involvement of phenolic acids in the interaction was examined. HPLC was used to monitor changes in the concentrations of three specific phenolics: syringic acid (SA), caffeic acid and 4‐hydroxybenzoic acid, identified as the main compounds that accumulated. The work reported here focuses on SA, the most antifungal of the molecules detected. The oil palm cv. AVROS, reported by local planters to be less susceptible than others, showed higher accumulation of SA than cvs Ekona and Calabar. Accumulation was promoted by addition of chitosan to the plant growing medium. By the end of the time‐course, the concentration of SA decreased in the oil palm tissues inoculated with G. boninense, suggesting possible metabolism by the pathogen. This loss was, however, not detected in tissues treated with chitosan alone and was greatly reduced when G. boninense was combined with this polymer. In vitro studies on antifungal activity of SA were done using concentrations ranging from 50 to 110 μg mL?1, those typically recorded in oil palm roots. SA was found to be antifungal (EC50 90–100 μg mL?1). The concentration of SA detected in root tissues, especially in the presence of chitosan, could inhibit growth of G. boninense. The pathogen was shown to degrade SA in vitro. However, at the highest concentration tested, metabolism was greatly delayed, only occurring after a lag phase in pathogen growth. Accumulation of phenolic acids, especially SA, may prove a useful trait in breeding resistant oil palm cultivars.  相似文献   

4.
Production and trade in oil crops has expanded in response to an increasing world population and improved living standards. The global production of oil palm has increased rapidly over the last 30 years, and palm oil is now the world's second most important vegetable oil after soybean. Oil palm is an important cash crop in Papua New Guinea (PNG), with about 80,000ha in cultivation, grown both on large-scale plantations and by smallholders. The principal pests of oil palm in PNG are a group of insect species from the Tettigoniidae family (Orthoptera), known collectively as sexava. Three species of sexava are pests of oil palm in PNG, Segestes decoratus, Segestidea defoliaria and Segestidea novaeguineae. These insects cause damage by feeding on oil palm fronds and defoliation levels can be very severe where high populations occur. Severe defoliation causes reductions in photosynthesis resulting in yield loss from lower fruit production. During the last five years an integrated system has been developed for the management of sexava. This integrated pest management (IPM) system has the following components: (1) a knowledge of the biology and ecology of the pest, (2) economic thresholds, (3) monitoring system for the pest, (4) precise targeting of chemical control agents, (5) biological control, and (6) cultural control. The IPM system is sustainable and environmentally acceptable to the industry.  相似文献   

5.
Phytophthora root rot is of paramount importance in avocado orchards of southern Spain. Soil solarization has been demonstrated to control the pathogen in infested areas from which infected trees had been removed. We aimed to determine whether soil solarization in established avocado orchards controls the disease. Soil solarization increased average maximum hourly soil temperatures by 6.5–6.9°C in unshaded areas of avocado orchards in coastal areas of southern Spain, depending on depth and year. The corresponding temperatures in shaded areas were c. 2–3°C lower. P. cinnamomi in soil, on infected avocado rootlets, and in a nutrient substrate buried at 30–60 cm depth was reduced to negligible amounts after 6–8 weeks of solarization in both unshaded and shaded locations of avocado orchards. P. cinnamomi could not be detected in avocado rootlets up to 14 months later, suggesting a long-term effect. Soil solarization did not affect growth of the trees, and fruit yields were increased as compared with control plots. Following soil solarization for 3 weeks from mid-July 1994, when maximum hourly temperatures reached 33–36°C, P. cinnamomi could not be recovered from a depth of up to 45 cm in unshaded areas or from a depth of up to 30 cm in shaded areas after the initial 10-day period. The viability of inoculum of the pathogen buried at depths between 15 and 60 cm in bare soil was determined by sequential sampling in two solarization experiments starting 12 June and 4 July 1995, respectively. In the first experiment, P. cinnamomi could not be detected at any depth after 4–8 weeks of solarization in unshaded areas but could be recovered at all depths except 15 cm in shaded areas. In the second experiment, where temperatures were higher and the soil surface not shaded, P. cinnamomi could not be recovered after 2 weeks at 15 and 30 cm.  相似文献   

6.
HANNAN-JONES 《Weed Research》1998,38(6):413-423
At 7- to 8-week intervals between September 1990 and February 1993, blocks of Lantana camara L. cv. `Helidon White' were treated with four herbicides (fluroxypyr, metsulfuron-methyl, glyphosate and dichlorprop) as an overall high-volume spray at the recommended label rates. Mortality for each treatment was recorded and correlated with climatic data (maximum, minimum air and soil temperature, rainfall, day length and humidity) recorded for the site. Fluroxypyr killed more than 90% of the L. camara if at least 35 mm of rain was received in the preceding 6 weeks and provided that the average minimum daily temperature for the week before the application was above 15 °C. Similarly, glyphosate caused more than 80% mortality when the rainfall was greater than 60 mm in the preceding 6 weeks, with a similar temperature requirement to fluroxypyr. In contrast, dichlorprop and metsulfuron-methyl caused maximum kills of 35–80% and 83% respectively. This occurred in the summer or early autumn (at times when fluroxypyr and glyphosate also gave maximum kills), but times of maximum kill for dichlorprop and metsulfuron-methyl did not correlate with any specific climatic characteristics. Current field practice is to apply all herbicides in autumn (March–May) when L. camara is growing actively. The consequence of this is that, if some plants are not killed, they can go undetected until the next growing season. However, this study shows that fluroxypyr and glyphosate can be sprayed earlier in the year, thus allowing for follow-up sprays later in the same growing season to kill any regrowth.  相似文献   

7.
建立了同时测定小麦及其土壤中双氟磺草胺和氯氟吡氧乙酸残留的QuEChERS-超高效液相色谱-串联质谱方法,并采用该方法研究了低温冷藏条件下双氟磺草胺和氯氟吡氧乙酸在小麦上的储藏稳定性以及15%双氟磺草胺?氯氟吡氧乙酸悬乳剂在小麦和土壤中的最终残留及消解动态。结果表明:在添加水平为0.005~1 mg/kg范围内,双氟磺草胺和氯氟吡氧乙酸在小麦及土壤中的平均回收率在82%~108%之间,相对标准偏差在0.41%~11%之间 (n=5) ,均能满足农药残留分析的要求。在 –20℃下储藏365 d后,麦粒中双氟磺草胺和氯氟吡氧乙酸的残留量变化小于30%,符合植源性农产品中农药残留储藏稳定性试验准则要求,储藏稳定。双氟磺草胺在小麦植株和土壤中的消解半衰期分别为4.4~8.1 d和2.4~9.3 d;氯氟吡氧乙酸在小麦植株和土壤中的消解半衰期分别为7.9~10.6 d和11.8~24.8 d,即在相同的试验条件下双氟磺草胺在植株和土壤中消解速率快于氯氟吡氧乙酸的。采用推荐剂量有效成分180 g/hm2和推荐高剂量有效成分270 g/hm2的15%双氟磺草胺?氯氟吡氧乙酸悬乳剂于小麦田施药1次,在小麦收获期的麦粒中均未检出双氟磺草胺和氯氟吡氧乙酸残留。  相似文献   

8.
Ganoderma boninense causes severe losses to oil palm in South East Asia. The disease typically manifests itself as basal stem rot, but there remains controversy over the route of infection and source of inoculum. Using isolates differing in aggressiveness, infection via roots was confirmed; it was also shown that large inoculum provided as Ganoderma -infested palm- or rubber-wood blocks (12 × 6 × 6 cm) is necessary for soil infection of seedlings after 6–8 months. Smaller blocks (3 × 3 × 3 cm) produced rapid (≤ 3 months) infection of roots and lower stem when physically attached to roots. Therefore fragmentation of infested palm wood from a felled, mature plantation before subsequent replanting may provide inoculum. Failure of G. boninense to grow through non-sterile soil or organic debris from frond bases, suggests it is a poor competitor and that roots must contact inoculum directly. Severe disease occurred after 8 months on inoculated seedlings under shade, but not on seedlings exposed to sun. Soil temperatures in sunlight frequently rose above 40°C and reached 45°C, whereas in shade they never exceeded 32°C. Ganoderma boninense is probably inhibited in exposed soil since optimal growth in vitro was 25–30°C, and there was no recovery from 45°C. Soil temperature may explain why symptoms often first appear in mature plantations when canopy formation creates shade. Infection is not peculiar to senescing palms but can occur throughout the growth cycle.  相似文献   

9.
Summary. The residues remaining in the soil from repeated annual application of simazine at 2–8, 5–6, and 22–4 kg/ha to uncropped plots on a loam soil were measured by chemical or bioassay methods at various intervals after treatment.
The total simazine residue present 12 months after the last of three treatments with 2–8 kg/ha and 8 months after the last of five treatments with 5–6 kg/ha was less than 10% of the annual dose. This rapid decomposition is considered consistent with the soil and climatic conditions. In contrast a much larger residue (a mean value of 1·7 kg/ha) was found on plots sampled 21/2 years after the last of two annual applications of simazine at 22·4 kg/ha and the reduction in the amount of residue during the next 12 months was only of the order of 25%.
In all treatments the highest concentration of simazine was found in the surface layers of the soil but measurable residues were detected to 60 cm depth, 31/2 years after the last 22·4 kg/ha application.
There was considerable variation in the total residues recovered between replicate plots and between different positions on the same plots in all treatments regardless of the depth of the sample. The possible causes of this variation are discussed.
Persistance et pénétration de fortes doses de simazine dans un sol non cultivé  相似文献   

10.
The liana, hiptage ( Hiptage benghalensis ), is currently invading the wet tropics of northern Queensland and remnant bushland in south-eastern Queensland, Australia. Trials using seven herbicides and three application methods (foliar, basal bark, and cut stump) were undertaken at a site in north Queensland (158 700 hiptage plants ha−1). The foliar-applied herbicides were only effective in controlling the hiptage seedlings. Of the foliar herbicides trialed, dicamba, fluroxypyr, and triclopyr/picloram controlled >75% of the treated seedlings. On the larger plants, the cut stump applications were more effective than the basal bark treatments. Kills of >95% were obtained when the plants were cut close to ground level (5 cm) and treated with herbicides that were mixed with diesel (fluroxypyr and triclopyr/picloram), with water (glyphosate), or were applied neat (picloram). The costings for the cut stump treatment of a hiptage infestation (85 000 plants ha−1), excluding labor, would be $A14 324 ha−1 using picloram and $A5294 ha−1 and $A2676 ha−1, respectively, using glyphosate and fluroxypyr. Foliar application using dicamba for seedling control would cost $A1830 ha−1. The costs range from 2–17 cents per plant depending on the treatment. A lack of hiptage seeds below the soil surface, a high germinability (>98%) of the viable seeds, a low viability (0%) of 2 year old, laboratory-stored fruit, and a seedling density of 0.1 seedlings m−2 12 months after a control program indicate that hiptage might have a short-term seed bank. Protracted recolonization from the seed bank would therefore be unlikely after established seed-producing plants have been controlled.  相似文献   

11.
IKUENOBE  & AYENI 《Weed Research》1998,38(6):397-404
A range of herbicides was evaluated for the control of Chromolaena odorata (L.) K & R in oil palm at the Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research. Glufosinate-ammonium quickly dessicated treated foliage but weed plants soon recovered. Glyphosate-isopropylamine and glyphosate-trimesium produced similar results, both formulations controlling treated vegetation and suppressing regrowth for up to 12 weeks after treatment. Triclopyr and hexazinone + diuron were effective for up to 20 WAT, whereas imazapyr controlled regrowth for up to 36 WAT. Regrowth of the weed from its roots was better suppressed when the foliage was left undisturbed for 4–7 days after herbicide treatment. Repeated annual applications of triclopyr, hexazinone + diuron, the two formulations of glyphosate or imazapyr progressively reduced the biomass of C . odorata in the plots. In particular, imazapyr effectively eliminated the weed after the second application. Taking crop tolerance into consideration, the most promising herbicide treatments were glyphosate at 2.4 kg a.i. ha−1 and low rates (0.5 kg a.i. ha−1 or less) of imazapyr.  相似文献   

12.
采用高效液相色谱-紫外光谱(HPLC-UV)法,研究了烟嘧磺隆在不同含水量土壤中的消解动态,分析了土壤含水量对其消解的影响。土壤样品经V(乙腈)∶V(磷酸盐缓冲溶液)=1∶4提取,采用HPLC-UV法检测不同含水量的土壤中烟嘧磺隆的残留量。结果表明:在0.25~4 mg/L范围内,烟嘧磺隆峰面积与其质量浓度呈良好线性关系,相关系数为0.999 9。在0.05、0.25和1.25 mg/kg 3个添加水平下,烟嘧磺隆的回收率为91%~106%,相对标准偏差(RSD)为5.4%~9.5%。检出限(LOD)为0.012 mg/kg,定量限(LOQ)为0.04 mg/kg。当土壤含水量小于50%时,土壤水分含量变化对烟嘧磺隆消解的影响较小;当含水量大于50%时,烟嘧磺隆消解半衰期呈先增大后减小趋势,其中在含水量为60%和90%的土壤中消解最快,半衰期分别为19.7和18.6 d。  相似文献   

13.
The mobility and decomposition of the herbicide fluroxypyr (4-amino-3,5-dichloro-6-fluoro-2-pyridyloxyacetic acid) was studied under field conditions in a sandy soil and a clay soil. Leachate was collected in lysimeters with undisturbed soil (sand) and in tile-drained plots (clay). Soil samples to a depth of one metre were also collected in both soils to characterize the temporal depth distribution of fluroxypyr in the profiles. The herbicide was applied as the I-methylheptyl ester of fluroxypyr at two rates, 187.5 and 375.0 g a.e. ha?1, representing the normal and double the dose of the compound used for spring cereals. Some lysimeters received supplementary watering. Only two leachate samples (one from each soil) had concentrations of fluroxypyr above the detection limit (1 μg litre?1), i.e. 2 and 5 μg litre?1. Both samples were collected within two months after application, when less than 2 mm of drainage had been collected. The methylheptyl ester of fluroxypyr was not found in any of the samples. Fluroxypyr levels above the detection limit in soil (5 μg kg?1 dry soil), were never found below the topsoil (0.2 m) in the clay profile, while, in the sandy profile, levels just above the detection limit were found occasionally in deeper soil layers. Concentrations were reduced to undetectable or very low levels within three months after spraying.  相似文献   

14.
Vascular wilt of oil palm caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. elaeidis (Foe) is a devastating disease in West and Central Africa. As the oil palm industry in southeast Asia is still expanding, so is the oil palm germplasm collection through the importation of seed and pollen from Africa, the centre of diversity for Elaeis guineensis. There is a risk of inadvertent spread of the disease on contaminated seed or pollen. Regular re‐evaluation of the reaction of currently grown palm genotypes towards Foe is clearly required for biosecurity. This study has demonstrated that four Malaysian oil palm progenies, three in current or recent commercial use, are highly susceptible to infection by at least one of two African isolates of Foe, representing different countries, aggressiveness and vegetative compatibility groups. Symptoms and reduction of palm growth generally reflected the extent and intensity of systemic colonization by Foe. Progeny PK 5463 expressed partial resistance to Foe isolate F3, but not to isolate 16F, displaying significantly milder symptoms and supporting less widespread vascular colonization. This relatively incompatible interaction was used to study expression of potential defence‐related genes during root infection when compared to a susceptible palm–isolate combination. The only significant response was an early up‐regulation of chitinase in resistant palms. The research revealed at least one progeny–isolate differential interaction, and the associated resistance expression suggests a component of tolerance, because colonization by Foe was systemic in both compatible and incompatible combinations.  相似文献   

15.
丁醚脲在柑橘及其土壤中的残留及消解动态   总被引：2，自引：1，他引：1  
建立了丁醚脲在柑橘及橘园土壤中残留测定的超高效液相色谱-串联质谱（UPLC-MS/MS）检测方法,研究了其在柑橘和土壤中的消解动态及最终残留。样品采用乙腈提取,N-丙基乙二胺（PSA）净化,UPLC-MS/MS 检测。结果表明:在0.01、0.1和1 mg/kg 3个添加水平下,丁醚脲在柑橘全果、果肉和果皮中的回收率在84% ~89%之间,相对标准偏差（RSD）为2.6% ~7.2%,在土壤中的回收率为83% ~86%,RSD为2.2% ~5.6%;在广东、广西和福建3地柑橘及土壤中,其消解半衰期分别为3.7 ~4.4 d和4.1~5.4 d,表明丁醚脲消解较快;采用 500 g/L丁醚脲悬浮剂（SC）,分别按有效成分500和750 mg/L 的剂量于幼果期开始施药,施药2~3次,施药间隔期为10 ~14 d,距最后一次施药后21 d采样测定,柑橘果肉中丁醚脲的残留量均<0.01 mg/kg ,全果中的最终残留量均低于我国制定的丁醚脲在柑橘中的最大允许残留限量（MRL）标准（0.2 mg/kg）。  相似文献   

16.
MTB-951 is a potential mycoherbicide using a fungal plant pathogen ( Drechslera monoceras ) isolated from native Echinochloa species in Japan. Conidia of this pathogen were used as the active ingredient and its herbicidal performance was examined in a greenhouse. The efficacy of MTB-951 on Echinochloa crus-galli L. was higher in deep water (7–9 cm) than in relatively shallow water (3–5 cm). In a postemergence application, the efficacy decreased as the leaf stage of E. crus-galli proceeded between the 1 and 2.5 leaf stage. For example, the control ratio (%) of E. crus-galli was 95% when applied at the 1 leaf stage, and 72% at the 2.5 leaf stage in 5 cm water. Generally, mycoherbicidal efficacy was less when applied pre-emergence rather than postemergence. Efficacy was also influenced by the duration of submergence in deep water. For example, when water depth was kept at 5 cm for more than 7 days after application and then decreased down to 3 cm, the efficacy was high. However, when the water depth was kept at 5 cm for less than 7 days, the efficacy was low. Efficacy was lower under high temperatures (35°C/25°C, day/night) than under low temperatures (25°C/15°C, day/night). Water management, application timing and temperature are important factors on herbicidal efficacy of MTB-951 to control E. crus-galli .  相似文献   

17.
Factors affecting the production of conidia of Peronosclerospora sorghi , causing sorghum downy mildew (SDM), were investigated during 1993 and 1994 in Zimbabwe. In the field conidia were detected on nights when the minimum temperature was in the range 10–19°C. On 73% of nights when conidia were detected rain had fallen within the previous 72 h and on 64% of nights wind speed was < 2.0 m s−1. The time period over which conidia were detected was 2–9 h. Using incubated leaf material, conidia were produced in the temperature range 10–26°C. Local lesions and systemically infected leaf material produced 2.4–5.7 × 103 conidia per cm2. Under controlled conditions conidia were released from conidiophores for 2.5 h after maturation and were shown to be well adapted to wind dispersal, having a settling velocity of 1.5 × 10−4 m s−1. Conditions that are suitable for conidia production occur in Zimbabwe and other semi-arid regions of southern Africa during the cropping season.  相似文献   

18.
研究建立了烟叶及土壤环境中嘧肽霉素残留的高效液相色谱(HPLC)检测方法:鲜烟叶样品采用V(乙腈):V(水)=19:1的混合溶剂提取,干烟叶及土壤样品采用V(乙腈):V(水)=17:3的混合溶剂提取,经PEP-SPE固相萃取柱净化,HPLC检测。结果表明:在0.05～2 mg/kg添加水平下,嘧肽霉素在鲜烟叶、干烟叶和土壤中的平均回收率分别为82.7%～89.6%、78.7%～81.5%和79.6%～97.8%,相对标准偏差(RSD)分别为4.9%～5.7%、2.1%～5.8%和3.2%～6.1%;烟叶和土壤中嘧肽霉素的最小检出量(LOD)均为0.05 mg/kg。采用所建立的方法测定了田间不同施药剂量、施药次数和采收时间下烟叶及土壤样品中嘧肽霉素的消解动态及最终残留。结果表明:嘧肽霉素在鲜烟叶和土壤中的半衰期分别为3.4～5.1 d和1.3～3.1 d;于烟草现蕾-成熟期,以2%嘧肽霉素水剂按有效成分28.2～42.3 g/hm2的剂量施药2～3次,距末次施药后7、14和21 d,烟叶及土壤中嘧肽霉素的残留量均低于LOD值(0.05 mg/kg)。  相似文献   

19.
Point pattern analysis (fitting of the beta-binomial distribution and binary form of power law) was used to describe the spatial pattern of natural take-all epidemics (caused by Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici ) on a second consecutive crop of winter wheat in plots under different cropping practices that could have an impact on the quantity and spatial distribution of primary inoculum, and on the spread of the disease. The spatial pattern of take-all was aggregated in 48% of the datasets when disease incidence was assessed at the plant level and in 83% when it was assessed at the root level. Clusters of diseased roots were in general less than 1 m in diameter for crown roots and 1–1·5 m for seminal roots; when present, clusters of diseased plants were 2–2·5 m in diameter. Anisotropy of the spatial pattern was detected and could be linked to soil cultivation. Clusters did not increase in size over the cropping season, but increased spatial heterogeneity of the disease level was observed, corresponding to local disease amplification within clusters. The relative influences of autonomous spread and inoculum dispersal on the size and shape of clusters are discussed.  相似文献   

20.
Abstract

The common myna Acridotheres tristis Linn., the jungle crow Corvus macrorhynchus Wagner and the house crow Corvus splendens Viellot are the major pests of oil palm in India. Other birds like crow pheasant Centropus sinensis Stresmann, parrot Loriculus sp. and pariah kite Milvus migrans Sykes also feed on oil palm fruits. These birds feed on the fleshy mesocarp of the ripe fruits resulting in heavy fruit loss, significantly reducing oil yield. Gizzard and intestinal content analysis indicated that oil palm fruits are the major source of food for these birds. Observations on 1657 oil palm fruit bunches during 1985–86 revealed that 76% of the ripe bunches and 5.6% of the unripe bunches were damaged by birds. The damage by birds was either ‘partial’ or ‘complete’, where 40–50% and 80–100% respectively, of the individual fruit weight was lost. The partial fruit damage was more common in 130–160 day‐old bunches and the complete fruit damage increased after 150 days of fruit set. Fruit loss due to bird damage was higher in palms in the border area of the plantation (2.3 kg/bunch) than in the interior (1.3 kg/bunch). It is estimated that around 2.8 tonnes of fresh fruits/ha/yr, equivalent to 420 kg of palm oil, are lost due to bird damage.  相似文献   

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