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1.
Fire-scarred trees provide a deep temporal record of historical fire activity, but identifying the mechanisms therein that controlled landscape fire patterns is not straightforward. We use a spatially correlated metric for fire co-occurrence between pairs of trees (the Sørensen distance variogram), with output from a neutral model for fire history, to infer the relative strength of top-down vs. bottom-up controls on historical fire regimes. An inverse modeling procedure finds combinations of neutral-model parameters that produce Sørensen distance variograms with statistical properties similar to those observed from two landscapes in eastern Washington, USA, with contrasting topography. We find the most parsimonious model structure that is able to replicate the observed patterns and the parameters of this model provide surrogates for the predominance of top-down vs. bottom-up controls. Simulations with relatively low spread probability produce irregular fire perimeters and variograms similar to those from the topographically complex landscape. With higher spread probabilities fires exhibit regular perimeters and variograms similar to those from the simpler landscape. We demonstrate that cross-scale properties of the fire-scar record, even without historical fuels and weather data, document how complex topography creates strong bottom-up controls on fire spread. This control is weaker in simpler topography, and may be compromised in a future climate with more severe weather events. 相似文献
2.
Climate, topography, fuel loadings, and human activities all affect spatial and temporal patterns of fire occurrence. Because
fire is modeled as a stochastic process, for which each fire history is only one realization, a simulation approach is necessary
to understand baseline variability, thereby identifying constraints, or forcing functions, that affect fire regimes. With
a suitable neutral model, characteristics of natural fire regimes estimated from fire history data can be compared to a “null
hypothesis”. We generated random landscapes of fire-scarred trees via a point process with sequential spatial inhibition.
Random ignition points, fire sizes, and fire years were drawn from uniform and exponential family probability distributions.
We compared two characteristics of neutral fire regimes to those from five watersheds in eastern Washington that have experienced
low-severity fire. Composite fire intervals (CFIs) at multiple spatial scales displayed similar monotonic decreases with increasing
sample area in neutral vs. real landscapes, although patterns of residuals from statistical models differed. In contrast,
parameters of the Weibull distribution associated with temporal trends in fire hazard exhibited different forms of scale dependence
in real vs. simulated data. Clear patterns in neutral landscapes suggest that deviations from them in empirical data represent
real constraints on fire regimes (e.g., topography, fuels). As with any null model, however, neutral fire-regime models need
to be carefully tuned to avoid confounding these constraints with artifacts of modeling. Neutral models show promise for investigating
low-severity fire regimes to separate intrinsic properties of stochastic processes from the effects of climate, fuel loadings,
topography, and management. 相似文献
3.
Fire regimes often vary at fine spatial scales in response to factors such as topography or fuels while climate usually synchronizes fires across broader scales. We investigated the relative influence of top-down and bottom-up controls on fire occurrence in ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forests in a highly fragmented landscape at Mount Dellenbaugh, in northwestern Arizona. Our study area of 4,000?ha was characterized by patches of ponderosa pine forest in drainages that were separated by a matrix of pinyon?Cjuniper woodlands, sagebrush shrublands, and perennial grasslands. We reconstructed fire histories from 135 fire-scarred trees in sixteen 25-ha sample sites placed in patches of mature ponderosa forest. We found that, among patches of ponderosa forest, fires were similar in terms of frequency but highly asynchronous in terms of individual years. Climate synchronized fire but only across broader spatial scales. Fires occurring at broader scales were associated with dry years that were preceded by several wet years. The remarkable level of asynchrony at finer scales suggests that bottom-up factors, such as site productivity and fuel continuity, were important in regulating fire at Mount Dellenbaugh. Understanding where bottom-up controls were historically influential is important for prioritizing areas that may best respond to fuel treatment under a warming climate. 相似文献
4.
5.
The influence of forest harvesting on landscape spatial patterns and old-growth-forest fragmentation in southeast British Columbia 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
Habitat fragmentation is considered one of the major conservation issues of recent decades. We tested predictions of landscape patterns in a 352,253-ha managed forest area in southeast British Columbia. We did this by focussing on forest fragmentation concerns among old-growth, harvest, and wildfire patches in 44 delineated landscapes using patch indices as measures of landscape pattern. We found no significant association between amount of harvesting and 15 old-growth patch indices. Comparisons among patch types revealed that amounts and spatial patterns of harvest patches differed little from amounts and spatial patterns of old-growth patches in control landscapes. Variability indices revealed similar variability between harvest patches and old-growth patches, and more variability between harvest patches and wildfire patches. Little of the evidence gathered in this study supported predictions of fragmentation of old-growth spatial patterns, or predicted differences between harvest spatial patterns and more naturally occurring spatial patterns. We suggest these results could be due to the relatively small amounts of harvesting and old-growth forest in these landscapes, and therefore habitat amount may be a more important factor than spatial configuration of patches in these landscapes. 相似文献
6.
Lara-Karena B. Kellogg Donald McKenzie David L. Peterson Amy E. Hessl 《Landscape Ecology》2008,23(2):227-240
Fire regimes are complex systems that represent an aggregate of spatial and temporal events whose statistical properties are
scale dependent. Despite the breadth of research regarding the spatial controls on fire regime variability, few datasets are
available with sufficient resolution to test spatially explicit hypotheses. We used a spatially distributed network of georeferenced
fire-scarred trees to investigate the spatial structure of fire occurrence at multiple scales. Mantel’s tests and geostatistical
analysis of fire-occurrence time series led to inferences about the mechanisms that generated spatial patterns of historical
fire synchrony (multiple trees recording fire in a single year) in eastern Washington, USA. The spatial autocorrelation structure
of historical fire regimes varied within and among sites, with clearer patterns in the complex rugged terrain of the Cascade
Range than in more open and rolling terrain further north and east. Results illustrate that the statistical spatial characteristics
of fire regimes change with landform characteristics within a forest type, suggesting that simple relationships between fire
frequency, fire synchrony, and forest type do not exist. Quantifying the spatial structures in fire occurrence associated
with topographic variation showed that fire regime variability depends on both landscape structure and the scale of measurement.
Spatially explicit fire-scar data open new possibilities for analysis and interpretation, potentially informing the design
and application of fire management on landscapes, including hazardous fuel treatments and the use of fire for ecosystem restoration.
相似文献
| Donald McKenzieEmail: |
7.
Temporal patterns of ecosystem processes on simulated landscapes in Glacier National Park,Montana, USA 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
The mechanistic, spatially-explicit fire succession model, Fire-BGC (a Fire BioGeoChemical succession model) was used to investigate long-term trends in landscape pattern under historical and future fire regimes and present and future climate regimes for two 46000 ha landscapes in Glacier National Park, Montana, USA. Fire-BGC has two spatial and temporal resolutions in the simulation architecture where ecological processes that act at a landscape level, such as fire, are simulated annually from information contained in spatial data layers, while stand-level processes such as photosynthesis, transpiration, and decomposition are simulated both daily and annually. Fire is spread across the landscape using the FARSITE fire growth model and subsequent fire effects are simulated at the stand-level. Fire-BGC was used to simulate changes in landscape pattern over 250 years under four scenarios: (1) complete fire exclusion under current climate, (2) historical wildfire occurrence and current climate, (3) complete fire exclusion under a possible future climate, (4) future wildfire occurrence and future climate. Simulated maps of dominant tree species, aboveground standing crop, leaf area index, and net primary productivity (NPP) were contrasted across scenarios using the metrics of patch density, edge density, evenness, contagion, and interspersion. Simulation results indicate that fire influences landscape pattern metrics more that climate alone by creating more diverse, fragmented, and disconnected landscapes. Fires were more frequent, larger, and more intense under a future climate regime. Landscape metrics showed different trends for the process-based NPP map when compared to the cover type map. It may be important to augment landscape analyses with process-based layers as well as structural and compositional layers. 相似文献
8.
Michael C. Stambaugh Daniel C. Dey Richard P. Guyette Hong S. He Joseph M. Marschall 《Landscape Ecology》2011,26(7):923-935
Information describing spatial and temporal variability of forest fuel conditions is essential to assessing overall fire hazard
and risk. Limited information exists describing spatial characteristics of fuels in the eastern deciduous forest region, particularly
in dry oak-dominated regions that historically burned relatively frequently. From an extensive fuels survey of unmanaged forest
lands (1,446 plots) we described fuel loadings and spatial patterns of fine and coarse fuels. We attempted to explain the
variability in fuel loading of each time-lag fuel class using landscape and seasonal variables through a multiple regression
modeling approach. Size class distributions of woody fuels were generally homogeneous across the region except in the glaciated
portions of Illinois where loadings appeared lower. Temporally, litter depths progressively decreased from leaffall (November).
A fire hazard model that combined seasonal changes in litter depth and fuel moisture content depicted the degree of regional
spatial variability during the transition between extreme dry and wet conditions. In the future, fire hazard indices could
be paired with ignition probabilities in order to assess spatio-temporal variability of fire risk within the region. 相似文献
9.
Raul Romero-Calcerrada C. J. Novillo J. D. A. Millington I. Gomez-Jimenez 《Landscape Ecology》2008,23(3):341-354
The majority of wildfires in Spain are caused by human activities. However, much wildfire research has focused on the biological
and physical aspects of wildfire, with comparatively less attention given to the importance of socio-economic factors. With
recent changes in human activity and settlement patterns in many parts of Spain, potentially contributing to the increases
in wildfire occurrence recently observed, the need to consider human activity in models of wildfire risk for this region are
apparent. Here we use a method from Bayesian statistics, the weights of evidence (WofE) model, to examine the causal factors
of wildfires in the south west of the Madrid region for two differently defined wildfire seasons. We also produce predictive
maps of wildfire risk. Our results show that spatial patterns of wildfire ignition are strongly associated with human access
to the natural landscape, with proximity to urban areas and roads found to be the most important causal factors We suggest
these characteristics and recent socio-economic trends in Spain may be producing landscapes and wildfire ignition risk characteristics
that are increasingly similar to Mediterranean regions with historically stronger economies, such as California, where the
urban-wildland interface is large and recreation in forested areas is high. We also find that the WofE model is useful for
estimating future wildfire risk. We suggest the methods presented here will be useful to optimize time, human resources and
fire management funds in areas where urbanization is increasing the urban-forest interface and where human activity is an
important cause of wildfire ignition. 相似文献
10.
Landscape dynamics in crown fire ecosystems 总被引：21，自引：3，他引：18
Crown fires create broad-scale patterns in vegetation by producing a patch mosaic of stand age classes, but the spread and behavior of crown fires also may be constrained by spatial patterns in terrain and fuels across the landscape. In this review, we address the implications of landscape heterogeneity for crown fire behavior and the ecological effects of crown fires over large areas. We suggest that fine-scale mechanisms of fire spread can be extrapolated to make broad-scale predictions of landscape pattern by coupling the knowledge obtained from mechanistic and empirical fire behavior models with spatially-explicit probabilistic models of fire spread. Climatic conditions exert a dominant control over crown fire behavior and spread, but topographic and physiographic features in the landscape and the spatial arrangement and types of fuels have a strong influence on fire spread, especially when burning conditions (e.g., fuel moisture and wind) are not extreme. General trends in crown fire regimes and stand age class distributions can be observed across continental, latitudinal, and elevational gradients. Crown fires are more frequent in regions having more frequent and/or severe droughts, and younger stands tend to dominate these landscapes. Landscapes dominated by crown fires appear to be nonequilibrium systems. This nonequilibrium condition presents a significant challenge to land managers, particularly when the implications of potential changes in the global climate are considered. Potential changes in the global climate may alter not only the frequency of crown fires but also their severity. Crown fires rarely consume the entire forest, and the spatial heterogeneity of burn severity patterns creates a wide range of local effects and is likely to influence plant reestablishment as well as many other ecological processes. Increased knowledge of ecological processes at regional scales and the effects of landscape pattern on fire dynamics should provide insight into our understanding of the behavior and consequences of crown fires. 相似文献
11.
Climate and topography are two important controls on spatial patterns of fire disturbance in forests globally, via their influence
on fuel moisture and fuel production. To assess the influences of climate and topography on fire disturbance patterns in a
temperate forest region, we analyzed the mapped perimeters of fires that burned during 1930–2003 in two national parks in
the eastern United States. These were Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP) in the southern Appalachian Mountains and
Shenandoah National Park (SNP) in the central Appalachian Mountains. We conducted GIS analyses to assess trends in area burned
under differing climatic conditions and across topographic gradients (elevation, slope position, and aspect). We developed
a Classification and Regression Tree model in order to further explore the interactions between topography, climate, and fire.
The results demonstrate that climate is a strong driver of both spatial and temporal patterns of wildfire. Fire was most prevalent
in the drier SNP than the wetter GSMNP, and during drought years in both parks. Topography also influenced fire occurrence,
with relatively dry south-facing aspects, ridges, and lower elevations burning most frequently. However, the strength of topographic
trends varied according to the climatic context. Weaker topographic trends emerged in the drier SNP than GSMNP, and during
low-PDSI (dry) years than high-PDSI (wet) years in both parks. The apparent influence of climate on the spatial patterning
of fire suggests a more general concept, that disturbance-prone landscapes exhibit weaker fine-scale spatial patterning of
disturbance than do less disturbance-prone landscapes. 相似文献
12.
Francisco Moreira Filipe X. Catry Francisco Rego Fernando Bacao 《Landscape Ecology》2010,25(9):1405-1417
Not all wildfire ignitions result in burned areas of a similar size. The aim of this study was to explore whether there was
a size-dependent pattern (in terms of resulting burned area) of fire ignitions in Portugal. For that purpose we characterised
71,618 fire ignitions occurring in the country in the period 2001–2003, in terms of population density in the local parish,
land cover type and distance to roads. We then assigned each ignition into subsets of five classes according to the resulting
burned area: >5 ha, >50 ha, >100 ha, >250 ha, >500 ha. The probability of an ignition resulting in different burned area classes
was modelled using binary logistic regression, and the relative importance, strength and signal (positive or negative) of
the three explanatory variables compared across the models obtained for the different classes. Finally, we explored the implications
of land cover and population density changes during the period 1990–2000 in Portugal for the likelihood of ignitions resulting
in wildfires >500 ha. Population density was the more important variable explaining the resulting burned area, with the probability
of an ignition resulting in a large burned area being inversely related to population density. In terms of land cover, ignitions
resulting in large burned areas were more likely to occur in shrubland and forest areas. Finally, ignitions farther away from
roads were more likely to result in large burns. The current land cover trends (decrease of agricultural land and increase
in shrublands) and population trends (decline in population densities except near the coast) are increasing the probability
that ignitions will result in large fires in vast regions of the country. 相似文献
13.
Tania Schoennagel Monica G. Turner Daniel M. Kashian Andrew Fall 《Landscape Ecology》2006,21(8):1281-1296
A probabilistic spatial model was created based on empirical data to examine the influence of different fire regimes on stand
structure of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) forests across a >500,000-ha landscape in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, USA. We asked how variation in the frequency
of large fire events affects (1) the mean and annual variability of age and tree density (defined by postfire sapling density
and subsequent stand density) of lodgepole pine stands and (2) the spatial pattern of stand age and density across the landscape.
The model incorporates spatial and temporal variation in fire and serotiny in predicting postfire sapling densities of lodgepole
pine. Empirical self-thinning and in-filling curves alter initital postfire sapling densities over decades to centuries. In
response to a six-fold increase in the probability of large fires (0.003 to 0.018 year−1), mean stand age declined from 291 to 121 years. Mean stand density did not increase appreciably at high elevations (1,029
to 1,249 stems ha−1) where serotiny was low and postfire sapling density was relatively low (1,252 to 2,203 stems ha−1). At low elevations, where prefire serotiny and postfire lodgepole pine density are high, mean stand densities increased
from 2,807 to 7,664 stems ha−1. Spatially, the patterns of stand age became more simplified across the landscape, yet patterns of stand density became more
complex. In response to more frequent stand replacing fires, very high annual variability in postfire sapling density is expected,
with higher means and greater variation in stand density across lodgepole pine landscapes, especially in the few decades following
large fires. 相似文献
14.
The protean relationship between boreal forest landscape structure and red squirrel distribution at multiple spatial scales 总被引：3，自引：0，他引：3
This paper investigates two fundamental questions in landscape ecology: what influence does landscape context, or the composition of the matrix, have on an animals’ response to landscape structure, and how does this relationship extrapolate between landscapes? We investigate how the distribution of North American red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) in the boreal mixedwood forest is influenced by anthropogenically (forest harvest) and naturally (forest fire) derived landscape structure. We studied the presence and absence of red squirrels over two years in three landscape types: one managed for timber harvest, one recently burned by wildfire, and a third unburned unmanaged landscape. Landscape composition and configuration, measured at several spatial scales, predicted red squirrel’s distribution in all three landscapes, but the significant landscape variables changed across spatial scales, across time, and across landscapes. These findings emphasize the variability in landscape structure/animal distribution relationships, and enforce the need to link pattern-finding studies, such as this one, with searches for the mechanisms behind the observed pattern. 相似文献
15.
Fire and grazing are ecological processes that frequently interact to modify landscape patterns of vegetation. There is empirical
and theoretical evidence that response of herbivores to heterogeneity is scale-dependent however the relationship between
fire and scale of heterogeneity is not well defined. We examined the relationship between fire behavior and spatial scale
(i.e., patch grain) of fuel heterogeneity. We created four heterogeneous landscapes modeled after those created by a fire–grazing
interaction that differed in grain size of fuel patches. Fire spread was simulated through each model landscape from 80 independent,
randomly located ignition points. Burn area, burn shape complexity and the proportion of area burnt by different fire types
(headfire, backfire and flankfire) were all affected by the grain of fuel patch. The area fires burned in heterogeneous landscapes
interacted with the fuel load present in the patch where ignition occurred. Burn complexity was greater in landscapes with
small patch grain than in landscapes with large patch grain. The proportion of each fire type (backfire, flankfire and headfire)
was similar among all landscapes regardless of patch grain but the variance of burned area within each of the three fire types
differed among treatments of patch grain. Our landscape fire simulation supports the supposition that feedbacks between landscape
patterns and ecological processes are scale-dependent, in this case spatial scale of fuel loading altering fire spread through
the landscape. 相似文献
16.
Fire is an important natural disturbance in the Mediterranean-climate coastal shrublands of southern California. However,
anthropogenic ignitions have increased fire frequency to the point that it threatens the persistence of some shrub species
and favors the expansion of exotic annual grasses. Because human settlement is a primary driver of increased ignitions, we
integrated a landscape model of disturbance and succession (LANDIS) with an urban growth model (UGM) to simulate the combined
effects of urban development and high fire frequency on the distribution of coastal shrublands. We tested whether urban development
would contribute to an expansion of the wildland-urban interface (WUI) and/or change in average fire return intervals and
compared the relative impacts of direct habitat loss and altered fire regimes on functional vegetation types. We also evaluated
two methods of integrating the simulation models. The development pattern predicted by the UGM was predominantly aggregated,
which minimized the expansion of the WUI and increase in fire frequency, suggesting that fire risk may be higher at intermediate
levels of urbanization due to the spatial arrangement of ignition sources and fuel. The comparison of model coupling methods
illustrated how cumulative effects of repeated fires may occur gradually as urban development expands across the landscape.
Coastal sage scrub species and resprouting chaparral were more susceptible to direct habitat loss, but increased fire frequency
was more of a concern to obligate seeder species that germinate from a persistent seed bank. Simulating different scenarios
of fire frequency and urban growth within one modeling framework can help managers locate areas of highest risk and determine
which vegetation types are most vulnerable to direct habitat loss, altered fire regimes, or both. 相似文献
17.
Anthropogenic influences on potential fire spread in a pyrogenic ecosystem of Florida, USA 总被引：1，自引：1，他引：1
Fire has historically been an important ecological factor maintaining southeastern U.S. vegetation. Humans have altered natural
fire regimes by fragmenting fuels, introducing exotic species, and suppressing fires. Little is known about how these alterations
specifically affect spatial fire extent and pattern. We applied historic (1920 and 1943) and current (1990) GIS fuels maps
and the FARSITE fire spread model to quantify the differences between historic and current fire spread distributions. We held
all fire modeling variables (wind speed and direction, cloud cover, precipitation, humidity, air temperature, fuel moistures,
ignition source and location) constant with exception of the fuel models representing different time periods. Model simulations
suggest that fires during the early 1900's burned freely across the landscape, while current fires are much smaller, restricted
by anthropogenic influences. Fire extent declined linearly with patch density, and there was a quadratic relationship between
fire extent and percent landscape covered by anthropogenic features. We found that as little as 10 percent anthropogenic landcover
caused a 50 percent decline in fire extent. Most landscapes (conservation or non-conservation areas) are now influenced by
anthropogenic features which disrupt spatial fire behavior disproportionately to their actual size. These results suggest
that land managers using fire to restore or maintain natural ecosystem function in pyrogenic systems will have to compensate
for anthropogenic influences in their burn planning.
This revised version was published online in May 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.
This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
18.
Short- and long-term patterns of net ecosystem carbon balance (NECB) for small, relatively uniform forest stands have been
examined in detail, but the same is not true for landscapes, especially those with heterogeneous disturbance histories. In
this paper, we explore the effect of two contrasting types of disturbances (i.e., fire and tree harvest) on landscape level
NECB by using an ecosystem process model that explicitly accounts for changes in carbon (C) stores as a function of disturbance
regimes. The latter were defined by the average disturbance interval, the regularity of the disturbance interval (i.e., random,
based on a Poisson frequency distribution, or regular), the amount of C removed by the disturbance (i.e., severity), and the
relative abundance of stands in the landscape with unique disturbance histories. We used the model to create over 300 hypothetical
landscapes, each with a different disturbance regime, by simulating up to 200 unique stand histories and averaging their total
C stores. Mean NECB and its year-to-year variability was computed by calculating the difference in mean total C stores from
one year to the next. Results indicated that landscape C stores were higher for random than for regular disturbance intervals,
and increased as the mean disturbance interval increased and as the disturbance severity decreased. For example, C storage
was reduced by 58% when the fire interval was shortened from 250 years to 100 years. Average landscape NECB was not significantly
different than zero for any of the simulated landscapes. Year-to-year variability in landscape NECB, however, was related
to the landscape disturbance regime; increasing with disturbance severity and frequency, and higher for random versus regular
disturbance intervals. We conclude that landscape C stores of forest systems can be predicted using the concept of disturbance
regimes, a result that may be a useful for adjusting estimates of C storage to broad scales that are solely based on physiological
processes. 相似文献
19.
Creating landscape patterns by forest cutting: Ecological consequences and principles 总被引：2，自引：2，他引：0
Landscape structural characteristics, such as patch size, edge length, and configuration, are altered markedly when management regimes are imposed on primeval landscapes. The ecological consequences of clearcutting patterns were explored by using a model of the dispersed patch or checkerboard system currently practiced on federal forest lands in the western United States. Thresholds in landscape structure were observed on a gradient of percentages of landscape cutover. Probability of disturbance,e.g., wildfire and windthrow, and biotic components,e.g., species diversity and game populations, are highly sensitive to these structural changes. Altering the spatial configuration and size of clearcuts provides an opportunity to create alternative landscapes that differ significantly in their ecological characteristics. Both ecosystem and heterogeneous landscape perspectives are critical in resource management. 相似文献
20.
Dwellers experience a constant threat of wildfires when constructing their residences in woodland settings in or near forests. In these regions, also recognized as Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI), consequences of wildfires can be fatal to humans, animals and vegetation. The establishment of wildfire risk indexes is useful when produced on a community scale; these indexes proved their effectiveness worldwide to identify vulnerabilities to ignition and fire spread, to understand the underlying science and to simulate exposure. In this paper, four main inputs (i.e. wildfire likelihood, defensible space, building envelope, and community infrastructure) are used to produce the WUI Building Risk Index (WUIBRI), representing the wildfire likelihood at the property-level, in a typical WUI area, namely, Beit-Meri – Lebanon. Results show that one fourth of the total buildings have an undesirable WUIBRI value – greater than eight, demanding fast response and effective mitigation techniques. This index illustrates a weak positive spatial autocorrelation in the study area, which measures dependency among sub-regions, and no relationship with the buildings’ prices.A Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) is conducted and projected over the next five years from the date of the study. Under the conservative scenario, output reveals that implementing simple measures (i.e. pruning and trimming vegetation around the home, creating two-ways roads with two exits, establishing fire sprinklers system) reduces WUIBRI values; accordingly, decreasing the wildfire threat would require only 20% on the first year and 6.15% on the long run (for the next five years) of the total costs when only one wildfire occurs per year. It is recommended that homeowners, municipalities, and decision-makers, join forces to create a fire-adapted community. The approach outlined in this study is achievable in other Mediterranean regions to reduce wildfire suppression costs. 相似文献