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1.
Information about the proportion of truly Salmonella‐free herds is required for an evaluation of the epidemiological situation, the development of control strategies and their implementation. Findings regarding the presence of salmonellas in faeces and intestinal lymph nodes as well as the presence of Salmonella antibodies in meat juice from slaughtered pigs were obtained in the context of a study conducted by a number of institutes. These data were used for an analysis of the validity of data on the prevalence of infected animals within herds and on the prevalence of infected herds. The proportion of batches or herds with exclusively negative individual findings was found to depend not only on the true proportion of truly Salmonella‐free animals within herds but quite essentially also on the distribution of the proportion of infected animals within herds, the sensitivity of the methods of examination and sample sizes. When taking into account the existing dependencies, it was found that among the swine, the real numbers of Salmonella carriers were much higher than shown by bacteriological and serological examination. Regarding salmonellosis in swine, also a number of contaminated herds must be expected which is far higher than that shown by the number of herds with positive findings in at least one animal. Even a low contamination of all or almost all herds would result in the numbers of ‘negative’ batches observed, i.e. batches with exclusively negative individual findings. A rating of the salmonella exposure of herds as high, low, or very low is possible and may, and should be, used for measures of consumer protection, irrespective of the proportion of truly Salmonella‐free herds.  相似文献   

2.
The objective of the study was to estimate the range of influence between cattle herds with positive Salmonella Dublin herd status. Herd status was a binary outcome of high/low antibody levels to Salmonella Dublin in bulk-tank milk and blood samples collected from all cattle herds in Denmark for surveillance purposes. Two methods were used. Initially, a spatial generalised linear mixed model was developed with an exponential correlation function to estimate the range of influence simultaneously with the effect of potential risk factors. An iteratively reweighted generalised least squares procedure was used as a second method for verifying the range of influence estimates. With this iterative procedure, deviance residuals were calculated based on a generalised linear model and the range of influence was estimated based on the residuals using an exponential semivariogram. The range of influence was estimated for six different regions in Denmark using both methods. The analyses were performed on data collected during 1 year after initiation of the Salmonella Dublin surveillance program providing herd classifications for the 4th year-quarter of 2003 and 2 years later for the 4th year-quarter of 2005. The prevalence of dairy herds with a positive Salmonella Dublin herd classification status in this period had decreased from 22.1 to 17.0%. In non-dairy herds, the prevalence was nearly unchanged during the same period (3.4 and 3.7% in 4th quarter of 2003 and 2005, respectively). For all cattle herds, the range of influence was 2.3–6.4 km in 2003 and 1.5–8.3 km in 2005. There seemed to be no association between the range of influence and the density of herds in the different regions.  相似文献   

3.
Estimates of prevalence of faecal Salmonella shedding among dogs in the United States have varied widely. Surveillance among shelter dogs has been limited, although dogs in animal shelters may be at elevated risk of Salmonella infection because of their previous exposure history as well as factors inherent to shelter environments. Our objectives were to estimate the prevalence of Salmonella shedding among shelter dogs across Texas, to identify risk factors for shedding and to characterize the isolates. Using a repeated cross‐sectional study design, we collected faecal samples from dogs on two or three visits to each of seven Texas animal shelters between May 2013 and December 2014. Standard bacteriologic culture methods were used to isolate Salmonella from samples, and isolates were characterized via serotyping and anti‐microbial susceptibility testing. The prevalence of faecal Salmonella shedding among sampled dogs was 4.9% (27/554), and within‐shelter prevalence ranged from 1.9% to 8.3%. There was a marginal association (P = 0.09) between watery faecal samples and positive Salmonella status, as estimated by a logistic regression model that controlled for shelter as a random effect. However, over 60% of Salmonella‐positive dogs had grossly normal faeces. Salmonella prevalence did not vary significantly by age group or sex. The most common serovars were Newport (22%) and Javiana (15%), both of which were widespread among shelters. Resistance to anti‐microbial agents was uncommon. The prevalence of faecal Salmonella shedding among shelter dogs in Texas appears to be comparable to that seen among pet dogs in general.  相似文献   

4.
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5.
A cross-sectional study was performed in the livestock–wildlife interface areas of Lochinvar and Blue Lagoon National Parks and the non-interface area of Kazungula to determine the prevalence of antibodies to Brucella spp. in domestic ruminants and identify individual animal risk factors of infection. A total of 1245 cattle from 124 herds and 280 goats and sheep from 29 flocks were tested sequentially for Brucella antibodies using the Rose Bengal test (RBT) and competitive ELISA. In cattle, individual seroprevalence ranged from 14.1% to 28.1%, while herd sero–prevalence ranged from 46.2% to 74.0% in the three study areas. No goat or sheep tested positive for Brucella antibodies. Three types of cattle grazing strategies were encountered: locally grazed herds (LGH), transhumantly grazed herds (TGH) and river flood plain grazed herds (FGH). Brucella seroprevalence was seen to vary according to area and grazing strategy: Lochinvar and transhumant grazed herds recorded the highest figures, respectively. Age, sex and history of abortion were found to have independent effects on individual seroprevalence. This study establishes that brucellosis is endemic in domestic animals in the livestock–wildlife interface areas of Blue Lagoon and Lochinvar national parks and the disease is also present in Kazungula. We observed that type of grazing strategy had significant impact on cattle Brucella seroprevalence and that transhumant herds were at high risk of being infected.  相似文献   

6.
Salmonella is one of the most common causes of human gastroenteritis often associated with pork consumption. The aims of this cross‐sectional study were to collect preliminary data on the presence of Salmonella enterica in pigs in Piedmont (Italy), through sampling on farm and at slaughter and to gather pilot data on serotypes and phagetypes present in the sampled area and distribution of anti‐microbial resistance among isolated strains. Salmonella was detected through culture and identified with Salmonella spp. and Salmonella Typhimurium PCR; positive samples were serotyped, phagetyped and tested for antibiotic susceptibility. Positive samples (from 9% of faeces up to 29% of tonsils) were found in 64% of the herds. Salmonella spp. was retrieved also from scalding water. Most of the isolates were Salmonella Derby, Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella 4,5,12:i:‐. The results of Salmonella Typhimurium specific PCR suggested that Salmonella 4,5,12:i:‐ might be unrecognized by serotyping. Anti‐microbial resistance was recorded in 75–100% of the isolates. Phagetyping allowed the identification of DT104B and DT46A strains. These results set the bases for further research studies that would aim to estimate the real herd prevalence in Piedmont and the diffusion of serotypes and anti‐microbial resistant strains within the same region.  相似文献   

7.
Objective To compare serological responses in pig herds classified as low or high risk for disease caused by Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, using two ELISA tests based on serovar‐independent antigens. Procedure Cross‐sectional sampling was undertaken in 13 commercial herds, the clinical and slaughter histories of which indicated either freedom from (n = 5) or prior confirmed cases of A. pleuropneumoniae (n = 8). In nine herds, approximately 40 pigs each were sampled at 4, 8, 12, 16 and 20 weeks. Three of the remaining four herds were sampled between 6 and 30 weeks of age, and the last was sampled only prior to slaughter, at approximately 24 weeks. Sera were tested in ELISA based on two antigens common among A. pleuropneumoniae serovars: a 39‐kDa outer membrane protein and a recombinant ApxIVA‐N terminus protein. Results Sampling of 1 and 5 to 6‐month‐old pigs provided the most useful information on herd status. The 39‐kDa ELISA was sensitive in detecting infected herds, but had evidence of cross‐reactivity with high seroreactivity rates in older pigs in some low‐risk herds. The ApxIVA‐N ELISA was less seroreactive in high‐risk herds and had higher specificity in low‐risk herds. Conclusion ELISA based on the 39‐kDa subunit are of limited use, because of possible cross‐reactivity, but a high negative predictive value may be useful for risk assessment in suspect herds. Maternal antibody to ApxIVA‐N may be of value in detecting high‐risk herds, but 5% of 4‐week‐old pigs in low‐risk herds were also seropositive in this assay.  相似文献   

8.
Enhanced Salmonella surveillance programmes in poultry were implemented in all European Member States, with minimum prevalence targets for a list of targeted serotypes to safeguard food and public health. Based on the Belgian Salmonella surveillance programme and focusing on poultry, the overarching aim of this study was to highlight possible Salmonella transmissions across the food chain (FC). For this purpose, firstly, the prevalence patterns of Salmonella (targeted and the most prevalent non-targeted) serotypes along the FC were described over time. Secondly, the effectiveness of the control measures against vertical transmission (breeders to 1-day-old broiler and layer chicks) was indirectly assessed by looking into the odds of targeted serotypes detection. Thirdly, it was appraised if Salmonella prevalence can significantly increase during broilers and layers production. In addition, it was tested if being tested negative at the end of production in broilers when tested positive at the entrance is serotype dependent (targeted vs. non-targeted serotypes). Results showed that, firstly, the prevalence patterns of the listed serotypes were inconstant over time and across the FC. Secondly, the odds of Salmonella targeted serotype detection in 1-day-old broiler and in 1-day-old layer flocks were lower than in breeder flocks while, thirdly, infection during broiler and layer production can lead to significant increase in positivity in subsequent samples. Finally, being infected by a targeted or by non-targeted serotype at the entrance of the flock poorly reflects the Salmonella status at the end of production. Note that this study did not make a distinction between the different sources of contamination and the effects of sampling methods and isolation methods should be subject to further investigation.  相似文献   

9.
This study assessed the effect of probiotics on cecal microbiota, cecal short‐chain fatty acids (SCFAs), and the gene expression of cytokines in young specific‐pathogen‐free (SPF) chickens infected with S. enterica subsp. enterica. One‐day‐old SPF chickens (n = 105) were randomly assigned to one of the three treatment groups: control (Cont) group, Salmonella‐infected (Sal) group, and a Salmonella‐infected group treated with multi‐strain probiotics (ProSal group). All chickens except those in the Cont group were challenged orally with 1 × 108 cfu/ml of Salmonella 4 days after hatching. Chickens in the Sal group exhibited more abundance of Proteobacteria than those in the Cont and ProSal groups. At the genus level, chickens in ProSal group exhibited increased numbers of Lactobacillus and Oscillospira compared with those in the other groups. Chickens in the ProSal group exhibited a significant increase of cecal SCFAs compared with chickens in the Sal group. Chickens in the ProSal group exhibited increased gene expression of anti‐inflammatory cytokines, IL‐10 and TGF‐β4, and decreased expression of the proinflammatory cytokine, IFN‐γ, in the cecal tonsil compared with those in the Sal group. The results of this study indicated that the administration of probiotics can modulate microbiota, SCFAs, and immunomodulatory activity in SPF chickens.  相似文献   

10.
The most important pork-borne zoonotic diseases in humans such as Salmonelloses and Yersinioses cause only latent infections in pigs. Thus, the infection of pigs does not result in apparent or palpable alterations in the pig carcasses. This is the major reason, why the traditional meat inspection with adspection, palpation and incision is not able to control the food safety risks of today. The objective of this paper is to evaluate a set of serological tests, which provides a classification of pig herds into “zoonoses risk categories” as demanded by EU law and into “herd health risk categories” by using meat juice as diagnostic specimen for ELISA tests. Serological data that were obtained by testing meat juice samples from various pig herds were analyzed as proof of the “meat juice multi-serology” concept. For that, at least 60 meat juice samples from 49 pig herds each were taken between September 2010 and March 2011 and tested for antibodies against zoonotic pathogens (Salmonella spp., Trichinella spp., Yersinia enterocolitica and Toxoplasma gondii) and against pathogens causing production diseases (Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, influenza A virus subtype H1N1, influenza A virus subtype H3N2 and PRRSV). Apparent and true animal prevalence, herd prevalence values and intra-herd seroprevalence values as well as the predictive values for the herd and the animal prevalence values were calculated for each pathogen and each of the 49 randomly selected herds. The herd seroprevalence values (one seropositive sample per herd determined a “positive herd”) for Y. enterocolitica, Salmonella spp., T. gondii, M. hyopneumoniae and PRRSV were higher than 80%, respectively, for the influenza A viruses between 60% and 14% and for Trichinella spp. 0%. Although all herds were located in the same area in the Northwest of Germany within a radius of 250 km, the intra-herd seroprevalence values for all tested pathogens, except for Trichinella spp., varied remarkably from herd to herd. In the case of Y. enterocolitica and T. gondii the intra-herd seroprevalence values varied even from zero to 100%. This shows that a serological risk categorization of pig herds regarding zoonoses and production diseases is meaningful if used for risk-based decisions in the framework of the new meat inspection concept and as part of the herd health management system. Thus, the development of a cost-efficient, time- and labour-saving test system for simultaneously detecting various antibodies should be the next step for an extensive implementation of the meat juice multi-serology concept.  相似文献   

11.
The study investigated the prevalence, concentration and characteristics of Salmonella spp. in the Irish beef chain. A total of 900 samples including bovine hides, carcasses and ground beef were examined for the pathogen over a 2‐year study (July 2007–June 2009). Salmonella prevalence was low in all sample types; bovine hide (0.75%, 3 of 400); carcasses (0.25%, 1 of 400); and ground beef (3%, 3 of 100). All positive samples contained the pathogen in low concentrations (<10 CFU per cm2 or per g). Serovars recovered were S. Dublin from hide and carcasses and S. Braenderup in ground beef. All isolates were susceptible to 13 anti‐microbials. The study highlights that Salmonella can be found at low levels at all stages of beef chain production, processing and retail and that there is a need for multiple hurdle interventions and practices along the beef chain, which will reduce consumer exposure to this pathogen.  相似文献   

12.
The seroprevalence of Salmonella spp., pathogenic Yersinia spp., Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella spp. was studied in 1353 finishing pigs from 259 farms that were allocated according to farm types: large fattening farms (≥1000 pig places), small fattening farms (< 1000 pig places) and farrow‐to‐finish farms. The antibodies were analysed with commercial ELISA kits in meat juice samples that were collected at Finnish slaughterhouses. Salmonella antibodies were rare (3% of pigs, 14% of farms) when the cut‐off optical density (OD) value 0.2 was used. Antibodies to pathogenic Yersinia spp. and T. gondii were detected in 57% of pigs and 85% of farms (OD ≥0.3) and in 3% of pigs and 9% of farms (OD ≥0.15), respectively. No antibodies to Trichinella spp. were detected (OD ≥0.3). The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) considers Salmonella spp., Yersinia enterocolitica, T. gondii and Trichinella spp. as the most relevant biological hazards in the context of meat inspection of pigs. The seroprevalence of these important zoonotic pathogens was low in Finland, except that of Yersinia. The seroprevalence of Toxoplasma was significantly higher in pigs originating from small‐scale fattening farms (P < 0.05). Strong positive correlation was observed at the animal level between Salmonella and Yersinia seropositivity and between Salmonella and Toxoplasma seropositivity (P < 0.05). We suggest that these results reflect the level and importance of biosecurity measures applied on the farms. Meat juice serology at slaughter is a useful tool for targeting measures to control these pathogens. The information obtained from analyses should be used as part of the food chain information (FCI).  相似文献   

13.
Salmonella is, after Campylobacter, the most reported zoonotic pathogen in the EU. Poultry are a common source of infection to humans, and turkey flocks are commonly colonized with the organism. We investigated the prevalence and risk factors of Salmonella infection in 179 houses in 60 holdings representative of turkey meat and breeder production in Great Britain. From each holding, up to four houses were chosen, and two consecutive flocks per house were sampled/tested for Salmonella to investigate the persistence, elimination and introduction of Salmonella in consecutive crops. At the first sampling, the overall flock‐level Salmonella prevalence was 32.8% and 8.9% for meat and breeding flocks respectively. There was a higher prevalence of Salmonella in flocks in the rearing stage than in the fattening and breeding stages. At the first sampling, the flock‐level prevalence of Salmonella was 26.8% (95% CI: 20.7–33.7%), while the prevalence level in the subsequent flock was 20.5% (95% CI: 13.6–29.7%). No houses were positive for any of the EU‐regulated serovars. The most commonly encountered serovars were S. Kottbus and S. Kedougou. Carry‐over of infection was observed in 44.8% of the positive houses, and introduction of new infection occurred in 8.4% of houses. Data from the questionnaires and auditing of all holdings and houses were combined and used to calculate adjusted farm‐ and house‐adjusted risk factors. Significant risk factors were feed from a source other than a national compounder (OR = 2.4), feeder type other than pan feeders (OR = 2.4) and hygiene practices other than terminal cleaning and disinfection using power‐washing with sanitizer and anteroom with boot change (OR = 2.8). The study discusses the main challenges currently faced by the industry to control Salmonella in turkey production.  相似文献   

14.
Analyses of data collected in the Danish Salmonella Control Program in swine herds were conducted to assess the association between bacteriological and serological findings (including the degree to which changing serological status over time modulated the relationship) and to assess the degree to which type of swine operation and age group affected the relationship between bacteriological and serological findings. Although serological status was significantly associated with bacteriological prevalence of salmonella enterica in swine herds, the association was clarified by adding information on the change in serological status over time and the age group being tested. salmonella infection assessed by serological tests at a single time-point and data on age group tested would allow better targeting and managing control programs.  相似文献   

15.
The prevalence and distribution of seropositivity towards the protozoan parasite Neospora caninum were studied in single blood samples from 1561 cows from 31 Danish dairy herds. Blood samples were analysed by an indirect enzyme-linked immunoassay and an indirect fluorescent-antibody test. Seroprevalence in 15 herds with previous abortions assigned to neosporosis ranged from 1% to 58%, with a mean frequency of 22%. In eight out of 16 herds without a history of N. caninum related abortions, no seroreactors were found. In the remaining eight herds, the seroprevalence ranged from 6% to 59%. The prevalence and distribution of seropositivity, gestation number prior to sampling, and breed were related to abortions and perinatal deaths using a random-effects logistic-regression model. Abortion risk was significantly increased in seropositive animals (OR=3) and in 2nd-gestation cows (OR=3). Perinatal death was significantly influenced by gestation number and breed, but not by serostatus. Reproductive performance and culling risk of cows were not affected by serostatus. Seropositivity increased with “age” (i.e. gestation number) (P=0.02). In open cows, seropositivity tended to decrease with distance from calving (P=0.05). The proportion of seropositive pregnant cows increased with trimester (P=0.02).  相似文献   

16.
Summary In all European Union member states, Salmonella monitoring in poultry flocks is obligatory. In these monitoring programmes, a limited number of pooled faeces and/or dust samples are collected to determine whether Salmonella is present in the flocks or not. Whether these limited sampling protocols are sufficiently sensitive to detect expected low within‐flock prevalences of an intermittently shed pathogen is not yet clear. In this study, a comparison is made between different sampling procedures for the assessment of the between‐ and within‐flock prevalence of Salmonella in laying hens. In total, 19 farms were sampled. Using a comparable sampling methodology as in the official surveillance programmes, Salmonella could not be detected in any of the flocks. After transportation of the hens to the laboratory and subsequent analysis of cloacal swabs and caecal contents, Salmonella Enteritidis was detected in laying hens from five of 19 farms. The observed within‐flock prevalence ranged from 1% to 14%. Based on the results of this study, it can be expected that, depending on the sampling procedure, different estimates of the prevalence of Salmonella can be obtained and the proportion of Salmonella infected flocks is underestimated based on the results of the official monitoring programme.  相似文献   

17.
This article retrospectively analyses the spatial distribution and dog‐ and environmental‐level risk factors associated to Leishmania infantum seroprevalence among 807 asymptomatic dogs in the Municipality of Crevillente in Alicante in southeast Spain in 1999. They represented 60% of the dogs in this 103 km2 area, with a human census of 27 034 people and 90% lived in Crevillente town. The estimated seroprevalence (95% confidence interval) in 714 dogs ≥1‐year old was 22% (19–25) however; it was 12% (8–15) in town dogs and 0–100% in other administrative zones. High–medium seroprevalence zone clustered along a northeast–southwest fringe and around the town. They comprised the highest and driest inhabited part of the municipality, where farmland was interspersed by residential detached houses, whilst null–low seroprevalence zones included larger farmland extensions and two small rural villages. Predominant vegetation and ground soil type were bush, non‐irrigated fruit trees and conglomerate crust and sandstone in medium–high seroprevalence zones and irrigated grassland and fruit trees and colluvial deposits in null–low seroprevalence zones. Random effects logistic regression indicated that the prevalence of infection with L. infantum was higher for dogs sharing residence with infected dogs, increased until 5–6 years old and with body weight and was associated to increasing conglomerate crust and low surface water in the dog’s zone of residence. The study confirms that L. infantum infection is endemic in this part of Spain and shows that prevalence can vary significantly within a small area depending on specific demographic and environmental factors conditioning the habitat of the local L. infantum vector, Phlebotomus perniciosus. It suggests similar low‐scale variability is present in other geographically variable endemic areas and should be investigated to design Leishmaniosis risk maps and cost‐effective, evidence‐based, targeted control interventions.  相似文献   

18.
To enhance efforts related to controlling foodborne pathogens in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), information on epidemiology of non‐typhoidal Salmonella enterica (hereafter termed “Salmonella”) is limited. We quantified the overall regional and country‐specific Salmonella prevalence in different human populations and identified the most common serotypes. Published literature of Salmonella prevalence was systematically reviewed and reported following the Preferred Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. Pooled Salmonella prevalence measures were estimated using a random‐effects model. We identified 46 research reports that reported 84 Salmonella prevalence measures in 15 out of 24 countries in MENA. There were 252,831 tested humans with 6,356 Salmonella‐positive cases. The pooled Salmonella prevalence in MENA was estimated at 6.6% (95% confidence interval (CI): 5.4%–7.9%). The highest pooled Salmonella prevalence measures were in Morocco (17.9%, 95% CI: 5.7%–34.8%, 1997–2012), Tunisia (10.2%, 95% CI: 4.3%–18.0%, 1988–2009) and Sudan (9.2%, 95% CI: 6.5%–12.2%, 2006–2008), while the lowest were in Jordan (1.1%, 95% CI: 0.1%–3.0%, 1993–2010), Oman (1.2%, 95% CI: 1.2%–1.3%, 1998–2002) and Palestine (1.2%, 95% CI: 0.4%–2.1%, 1999–2011). In MENA, Salmonella pooled prevalence in gastrointestinal symptomatic, gastrointestinal asymptomatic and food handlers population groups was 13.0% (95% CI: 7.6%–19.6%), 11.4% (95% CI: 2.2%–25.7%) and 3.8% (95% CI: 1.0%–8.0%), respectively. Salmonella prevalence was 14.5% (95% CI: 8.7%–26.1%) in studies tested <100 subjects, whereas 4.6% (95% CI: 3.6%–5.8%) in studies tested ≥100 subjects. Salmonella Enteritidis (29.8%) and Typhimurium (23.6%) were the most common serotypes. Salmonella was a common foodborne pathogen in MENA countries, particularly in North African countries. Findings inform the scientific community, the public and the decision‐makers with Salmonella prevalence and gaps in evidence in MENA to support control and prevention strategies and could leverage more research studies.  相似文献   

19.
The Hygiene Package and Regulation EC‐2160/2003 require information flow from farm to slaughterhouse to enhance European consumers protection in a ‘farm to fork’ approach. This obligation especially concerns food‐borne zoonotic hazards transmitted to humans through pork consumption, such as thermophilic Campylobacter spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enterica and Yersinia enterocolitica. Prevalence estimates of these four hazards are affected by the sampling strategy and diagnostic procedure. Individual prevalence estimates for pig carriage (from digestive contents or lymph nodes collected at slaughterhouse) were higher than individual prevalence estimates for pig shedding (from faeces). Among risk factors described in the literature, poor pen cleaning and disinfection after pig departure to slaughterhouse and poor bio‐security measures are of major significance. Moreover, whereas wet feed increases the risk of pig infection by L. monocytogenes, dry feed is a risk factor for Salm. enterica. Mixing batches of pigs, notably in fattening herds, represents a risk for the transmission of Salm. enterica and Y. enterocolitica. Whereas small herds are more infected by thermophilic campylobacters and Y. enterocolitica, higher prevalence of Salmonella is observed in large herds due to a more frequent mixing of batches. Antibiotic treatment during the finishing period increases the risk of transmission of Salm. enterica. The forenamed elements should be taken into account to characterize farms in a risk assessment approach and to improve zoonotic hazard management in the pork food chain.  相似文献   

20.
Increased frequency of antimicrobial resistant Salmonella isolated from humans over the last quarter century in the United States has led to concern about the contribution animal production systems have played in the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistant Salmonella. In order to better understand the potential role of dairy cattle as a reservoir for antimicrobial resistant Salmonella, it is important to understand methods currently used to measure the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance among Salmonella from human and animal populations. This review describes the biology of Salmonella and antimicrobial resistance, methods used to monitor antimicrobial resistance, and studies that have measured the prevalence of antimicrobial resistant Salmonella among human and dairy cattle populations in the U.S. Although the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance among Salmonella from healthy dairy cattle is low, similar trends in the prevalence of resistance among Salmonella from clinically ill human and dairy cattle populations were observed in the literature.  相似文献   

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