首页 | 本学科首页   官方微博 | 高级检索  
相似文献
 共查询到20条相似文献，搜索用时 156 毫秒
1.

Background

Powassan virus (POWV), a flavivirus discovered in 1958, causes sporadic but severe cases of encephalitis in humans. Since 2007, the number of human Powassan cases diagnosed each year in the USA has steadily increased. This is in agreement with predictions that Powassan cases may increase in North America as a result of increased exposure to infected ticks. However, the increase may also reflect improved diagnostics and reporting among other factors.

Methods

A scoping review was prioritized to identify and characterize the global literature on POWV. Following an a priori developed protocol, a comprehensive search strategy was implemented. Two reviewers screened titles and abstracts for relevant research and the identified full papers were used to characterize the POWV literature using a predetermined data characterization tool.

Results

One hundred and seventy‐eight articles were included. The majority of the studies were conducted in North America (88.2%) between 1958 and 2017. Both genotypes of POWV (Powassan lineage 1 and Deer Tick virus) were isolated or studied in vitro, in vectors, nonhuman hosts and human populations. To date, POWV has been reported in 147 humans in North America. The virus has also been isolated from five tick species, and several animals have tested positive for exposure to the virus. The relevant articles identified in this review cover the following eight topics: epidemiology (123 studies), pathogenesis (66), surveillance (33), virus characterization (22), POWV transmission (8), diagnostic test accuracy (8), treatment (4) and mitigation strategies (3).

Conclusion

The literature on POWV is relatively small compared with other vector‐borne diseases, likely because POWV has not been prioritized due to the small number of severe sporadic human cases. With the projected impact of climate change on tick populations, increases in the number of human cases are expected. It is recommended that future research efforts focus on closing some of the important knowledge gaps identified in this scoping review.  相似文献   

2.
We assessed the potential of white‐tailed deer (WTD) (Odocoileus virginianus) to be a sentinel for human cases of Lyme disease (LD) in Indiana using location data from a 3‐year survey of approximately 3400 hunted deer with associated tick Ixodes scapularis and Borrelia burgdorferi (Bb) data. Data on human LD cases at the county level were obtained from the Indiana Department of Health. All data were assigned to county centroids to match the resolution of the LD data before creating optimized trend surfaces for LD incidence, hunted deer count, Ixodes scapularis and Bb prevalence. To determine whether LD was spatially associated with the areas of high densities of deer, deer with Ixodes scapularis and deer with ticks infected with Bb, we used spatial analysis with distance indices (SADIE). The SADIE analysis found significant spatial association between LD and the distribution of three organismal predictor variables, that is, WTD, Ixodes ticks and Bb. Lyme disease incident rate varied between 0.08 cases per 10 000 habitants (Johnson county) and 5.9 cases per 10 000 habitants (Warren county). In conclusion, WTD can be used as an accurate and cost‐effective sentinel for human LD. This method will permit public health workers to identify potentially endemic areas independently of human case reports.  相似文献   

3.
Schoolyards and suburban parks are two environments where active tick surveillance may inform local management approaches. Even in a state such as New York with a robust active tick surveillance programme operated by the state Department of Health, these settings are not routinely covered. The goal of this study was to highlight the importance of active surveillance for tick‐borne pathogens by describing their prevalence in ticks collected from schoolyards and suburban parks and to guide the use of integrated pest management in these settings. Tick dragging was performed in three regions of New York State: Long Island, the Lower Hudson Valley and the Capital Region. A total of 19 schoolyards and 32 parks were sampled. The location, habitat and weather at the time of tick collection were recorded. Ticks were speciated and tested for the presence of 17 pathogens with a novel application of nanoscale real‐time PCR. The causative agents of Lyme disease, anaplasmosis, babesiosis and Powassan virus disease were all detected from Ixodes scapularis in various sites throughout the capital region and south‐eastern counties of New York state. The most common agent detected was Borrelia burgdorferi, and coinfection rates were as high as 36%. This surveillance study also captured the first of the invasive Asian longhorned tick species, Haemaphysalis longicornis, in New York state (collected 2 June 2017). Results from this study highlight the importance of collaborative efforts and data sharing for improvement of surveillance for tick‐borne disease agents.  相似文献   

4.
Tick‐borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is the causative agent of tick‐borne encephalitis (TBE). TBEV is one of the most important neurological pathogens transmitted by tick bites in Europe. The objectives of this study were to investigate the seroprevalence of TBE antibodies in cervids in Norway and the possible emergence of new foci, and furthermore to evaluate if cervids can function as sentinel animals for the distribution of TBEV in the country. Serum samples from 286 moose, 148 roe deer, 140 red deer and 83 reindeer from all over Norway were collected and screened for TBE immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies with a modified commercial enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and confirmed by TBEV serum neutralisation test (SNT). The overall seroprevalence against the TBEV complex in the cervid specimens from Norway was 4.6%. The highest number of seropositive cervids was found in south‐eastern Norway, but seropositive cervids were also detected in southern‐ and central Norway. Antibodies against TBEV detected by SNT were present in 9.4% of the moose samples, 1.4% in red deer, 0.7% in roe deer, and nil in reindeer. The majority of the positive samples in our study originated from areas where human cases of TBE have been reported in Norway. The study is the first comprehensive screening of cervid species in Norway for antibodies to TBEV, and shows that cervids are useful sentinel animals to indicate TBEV occurrence, as supplement to studies in ticks. Furthermore, the results indicate that TBEV might be spreading northwards in Norway. This information may be of relevance for public health considerations and supports previous findings of TBEV in ticks in Norway.  相似文献   

5.
Tick‐borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is the most important tick‐transmitted arbovirus causing human disease in Europe, but information on its endemic occurrence varies between countries because of differences in surveillance systems. Objective data are necessary to ascertain the disease risk for vaccination recommendations and other public health interventions. In two independent, separately planned projects, we used real‐time RT‐PCR to detect TBE virus in questing ticks. In Poland, 32 sampling sites were selected in 10 administrative districts located in regions where sporadic TBE cases were reported. In Germany, 18 sampling sites were selected in two districts located in a region with high TBE incidence. Altogether, >16 000 ticks were tested by real‐time RT‐PCR, with no sample testing positive for TBEV. A systematic search for published studies on TBEV prevalence in ticks in Poland and Germany also suggested that testing large numbers of collected ticks could not consistently assure virus detection in known endemic foci. Although assignment of results to administrative regions is essential for TBE risk mapping, this was possible in only 10 (investigating 22 417 ticks) of 15 published studies (>50 000 ticks) identified. We conclude that the collection and screening of ticks by real‐time RT‐PCR cannot be recommended for assessment of human TBE risk. Alternative methods of environmental TBEV monitoring should be considered, such as serological monitoring of rodents or other wildlife.  相似文献   

6.
The tick‐borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), a zoonotic flaviviral infection, is endemic in large parts of Norway and Eurasia. Humans are mainly infected with TBEV via bites from infected ticks. In Norway, the main geographical distribution of ticks is along the Norwegian coastline from southeast (~59°N) and up to the southern parts of Nordland County (~65°N). In this study, we collected ticks by flagging along the coast from Østfold County to Nordland County. By whole‐genome sequencing of the mitochondrial genome of Ixodes ricinus, the phylogenetic tree suggests that there is limited phylogeographic structure both in Norway and in Europe. The overall TBEV prevalence is 0.3% for nymphs and 4.3% for adults. The highest estimated TBEV prevalence in adult ticks was detected in Rogaland and Vestfold County, while for nymphs it is highest in Vestfold, Vest‐Agder and Rogaland. The present work is one of the largest studies on distribution and prevalence of TBEV in ticks in Scandinavia, showing that the virus is wider distributed in Norway than previously anticipated.  相似文献   

7.
Tick bites on humans can occur in a variety of habitats and may result in the transmission of tick‐borne pathogens, such as the causative agent of Lyme borreliosis (LB), Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato. As the risk of transmission of this pathogen to the host increases with the duration of tick feeding, the recognition and removal of ticks as soon as possible following attachment is important for reducing the risk of infection. Performing a thorough body examination for ticks following potential exposure is recommended by tick awareness campaigns. Knowledge of where on the body feeding ticks are frequently found, and at which times of year peak tick exposure occurs, provides important information for public health messaging and may aid those bitten by ticks to engage more effectively with tick‐checking behaviour. This paper summarizes human tick bites in the United Kingdom (UK) during 2013–2018 reported to Public Health England's passive Tick Surveillance Scheme and further examines the anatomical location and seasonality of bites from the most commonly encountered tick and LB vector Ixodes ricinus. A total of 1,328 tick records from humans were received of which 93% were I. ricinus. Humans were most commonly bitten by I. ricinus nymphs (70% bites). Tick bites were recorded on all parts of the body, but there were significant differences in their anatomical location on adults and children. Most tick bites on adults occurred on the legs (50%), whereas on children tick bites were mostly on the head and neck (43%). Bites from I. ricinus were recorded throughout the year but were most numerous during May to August. This study adds to the body of research on the seasonality and anatomical location of human tick bites in temperate Europe and highlights the importance of data collected through passive surveillance in addition to research and epidemiological studies.  相似文献   

8.
  相似文献   

9.
Neoehrlichia mikurensis is a tick‐borne pathogen widespread among ticks and rodents in Europe and Asia. A previous study on Ixodes ricinus ticks in Norway suggested that N. mikurensis was scarce or absent on the south‐west coast of Norway, but abundant elsewhere. The aim of this study was to further investigate the prevalence and distribution of N. mikurensis along the western seaboard of Norway in comparison with more eastern and northern areas. The second aim of the study was to examine seasonal variation of the bacterium in one specific location in the south‐eastern part of Norway. Questing I. ricinus were collected from 13 locations along the coast of Norway, from Brønnøysund in Nordland County to Spjærøy in Østfold County. In total, 11,113 nymphs in 1,113 pools and 718 individual adult ticks were analysed for N. mikurensis by real‐time PCR. The mean prevalence of N. mikurensis in adult ticks was 7.9% while the estimated pooled prevalence in nymphs was 3.5%. The prevalence ranged from 0% to 25.5%, with the highest prevalence in the southernmost and the northernmost locations. The pathogen was absent, or present only at low prevalence (<5%), at eight locations, all located in the west, from 58.9°N to 64.9°N. The prevalence of N. mikurensis was significantly different between counties (p < .0001). No significant seasonal variation of N. mikurensis prevalence was observed in the period May to October 2015. Our results confirm earlier findings of a low prevalence of N. mikurensis in the western seaboard of Norway.  相似文献   

10.
Twenty‐six per cent of Mongolians live pastoral lifestyles, increasing their likelihood of exposure to ticks and placing them at a higher risk for contracting tick‐borne diseases (TBDs). Anaplasma spp. and Rickettsia spp. have been identified in ticks, livestock and humans in Mongolia, but no known qualitative research has been conducted investigating the association between nomadic herder characteristics, tick bite history and exposure to TBDs. To better understand the association between self‐reported tick bites and symptoms versus actual exposure to TBDs, this study paired serological data with 335 surveys administered to Mongolian herders, ages 12–69, from 2014 to 2015. Logistic regression results identified no significant associations between reported tick bites or symptoms with serological evidence of Anaplasma spp. and Rickettsia spp. controlling for age, gender and aimag. Among the 335 respondents who were seropositive to either Anaplasma spp. or Rickettsia spp., 32.9% self‐reported experiencing abnormal symptoms such as redness, inflammation, headache, arthritis or fever after being bitten. Alternatively, 17.3% (58/335) of individuals reported experiencing symptoms following a tick bite in instances where serological results indicated no exposure to Anaplasma spp. or Rickettsia spp. Results also identified inconsistencies in reporting and seroprevalence among different age groups, with children having the highest reporting and treatment seeking rates but low levels of exposure in comparison with other groups. While survey results showed that individuals were aware of peak tick seasons and tick species that inhabit specific areas, 58% of heads of households (49/84) were unaware that ticks can cause disease in livestock or dogs. This study suggests that herders are an at‐risk population in Mongolia with gaps in awareness of TBD risk. Increased surveillance paired with focused outreach to prevent TBDs targeted to the herder population is encouraged.  相似文献   

11.
Coxiella burnetii is considered a re‐emerging zoonosis in many countries. The bacterium is enzootic in livestock and wildlife in the United States, and environmental contamination is widespread. Despite the potential for exposure, the estimated prevalence of Q fever in humans and animals is not well elucidated, and reported human infections in the United States are relatively rare. Zoonotic transmission of the bacterium is usually associated with abortions in domestic ruminants, but other modes of transmission, such as contact with infected blood and/or milk during field dressing of infected wildlife, have not been thoroughly investigated. Studies of zoonotic pathogen transmission between animal reservoir hosts and humans are usually established in response to documented emergence or re‐emergence of a zoonosis in a particular locale, and, as such, the prevalence of infection in wildlife is largely unknown for many zoonotic pathogens, including C. burnetii. The objective of this study was to create a disease risk surface for C. burnetii seroprevalence in wild white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in New York State. Blood samples were collected from hunter‐harvested deer from across New York State in 2009 and 2010. The samples were processed and tested for the presence of anti‐C. burnetii antibodies via indirect microimmunofluorescence assays using phase II C. burnetii strain RSA439. Overall, 14.50% of the tested white‐tailed deer were C. burnetii phase II seropositive. The dual Kernel density estimation method was used to create a smoothed disease risk surface, which revealed variation in seroprevalence ranging from 0% to 32.0%. Areas of higher seroprevalence were detected in four discrete areas of Central New York and in one additional area in the southwest corner of the northern part of the state. This suggests certain locales where humans may be at increased risk for exposure to the bacterium secondary to contact with potentially infected deer.  相似文献   

12.
Traditionally, zoonotic pathogen ecology studies in wildlife have focused on the interplay among hosts, their demographic characteristics and their pathogens. But pathogen ecology is also influenced by factors that traverse the hierarchical scale of biological organization, ranging from within‐host factors at the molecular, cellular and organ levels, all the way to the host population within a larger environment. The influence of host disease and co‐infections on zoonotic pathogen carriage in hosts is important because these factors may be key to a more holistic understanding of pathogen ecology in wildlife hosts, which are a major source of emerging infectious diseases in humans. Using wild Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) as a model species, the purpose of this study was to investigate how host disease and co‐infections impact the carriage of zoonotic pathogens. Following a systematic trap and removal study, we tested the rats for the presence of two potentially zoonotic bacterial pathogens (Bartonella tribocorum and Leptospira interrogans) and assessed them for host disease not attributable to these bacteria (i.e., nematode parasites, and macroscopic and microscopic lesions). We fitted multilevel multivariable logistic regression models with pathogen status as the outcome, lesions and parasites as predictor variables and city block as a random effect. Rats had significantly increased odds of being infected with B. tribocorum if they had a concurrent nematode infection in one or more organ systems. Rats with bite wounds, any macroscopic lesion, cardiomyopathy or tracheitis had significantly increased odds of being infected with L. interrogans. These results suggest that host disease may have an important role in the ecology and epidemiology of rat‐associated zoonotic pathogens. Our multiscale approach to assessing complex intrahost factors in relation to zoonotic pathogen carriage may be applicable to future studies in rats and other wildlife hosts.  相似文献   

13.
In 2012 when many sheep flocks in northern‐central Tasmania were experiencing a high prevalence of ovine Johne's disease, 34 wild adult fallow deer shot on or near infected properties were negative to microscopic Mptb lesions of the ileo‐caecal valve, terminal ileum and ileo‐caecal lymph nodes. This study demonstrated 95% confidence of detecting Johne's disease in this fallow deer population if ≥10% of animals were shedding Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in their faeces, or if ≥21% of animals were sub‐clinically infected.  相似文献   

14.
Following reports of human cases of Lyme borreliosis from the Ossola Valley, a mountainous area of Piemonte, north‐western Italy, the abundance and altitudinal distribution of ticks, and infection of these vectors with Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato were evaluated. A total of 1662 host‐seeking Ixodes ricinus were collected by dragging from April to September 2011 at locations between 400 and 1450 m above sea level. Additional 104 I. ricinus were collected from 35 hunted wild animals (4 chamois, 8 roe deer, 23 red deer). Tick density, expressed as the number of ticks per 100 m2, resulted highly variable among different areas, ranging from 0 to 105 larvae and from 0 to 22 nymphs. A sample of 352 ticks (327 from dragging and 25 from wild animals) was screened by a PCR assay targeting a fragment of the 16S rRNA gene of B. burgdorferi s.l. Positive samples were confirmed with a PCR assay specific for the 5S‐23S rRNA intergenic spacer region and sequenced. Four genospecies were found: B. afzelii (prevalence 4.0%), B. lusitaniae (4.0%), B. garinii (1.5%) and B. valaisiana (0.3%). Phylogenetic analysis based on the ospC gene showed that most of the Borrelia strains from pathogenic genospecies had the potential for human infection and for invasion of secondary body sites.  相似文献   

15.
The genus Salmonella is found throughout the world and is a potential pathogen for most vertebrates. It is also the most common cause of food‐borne illness in humans, and wildlife is an emerging source of food‐borne disease in humans due to the consumption of game meat. Wild boar is one of the most abundant European game species and these wild swine are known to be carriers of zoonotic and food‐borne pathogens such as Salmonella. Isolation of the pathogen, serotyping and molecular biology are necessary for elucidating epidemiological connections in multi‐host populations. Although disease management at population level can be addressed using a number of different strategies, such management is difficult in free‐living wildlife populations due to the lack of experience with the wildlife–livestock interface. Herein, we provide the results of a 4‐year Salmonella survey in sympatric populations of wild boar and cattle in the Ports de Tortosa i Beseit National Game Reserve (NE Spain). We also evaluated the effects of two management strategies, cattle removal and increased wild boar harvesting (i.e. by hunting and trapping), on the prevalence of the Salmonella serovar community. The serovars Meleagridis and Anatum were found to be shared by cattle and wild boar, a finding that was confirmed by 100% DNA similarity patterns using pulse field gel electrophoresis. Cattle removal was more efficient than the culling of wild boar as a means of reducing the prevalence of shared serotypes, which underlines the role of cattle as a reservoir of Salmonella for wild boar. To our knowledge, this is the first attempt to manage Salmonella in the wild, and the results have implications for management.  相似文献   

16.
In vivo diagnosis of tick‐borne encephalitis is difficult due to high seroprevalence and rapid viral clearance, limiting detection of antibodies in blood and cerebrospinal fluid. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) characteristics of tick‐borne encephalitis have been reported, however MRI studies can also be negative despite the presence of neurologic signs. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H MRS) is an imaging method that provides additional information about the metabolic characteristics of brain tissues. The purpose of this retrospective cross‐sectional study was to describe brain metabolites using short echo time single‐voxel 1H MRS in dogs with confirmed tick‐borne encephalitis and compare them with healthy dogs. Inclusion criteria for the affected dogs were neurological symptoms suggestive of tick‐borne encephalitis, previous endemic stay and tick‐bite, diagnostic quality brain MRI and 1H MRS studies, and positive antibody titers or confirmation of tick‐borne encephalitis with necropsy. Control dogs were 10, clinically normal beagles that had been used in a previous study. A total of six affected dogs met inclusion criteria. All dogs affected with tick‐borne encephalitis had 1H MRS metabolite concentration alterations versus control dogs. These changes included mild to moderate decreases in N‐acetyl aspartate and creatine peaks, and mild increases in glutamate/glutamine peaks. No lactate or lipid signal was detected in any dog. Myoinositol and choline signals did not differ between affected and control dogs. In conclusion, findings supported the use of 1H MRS as an adjunctive imaging method for dogs with suspected tick‐borne encephalitis and inconclusive conventional MRI findings.  相似文献   

17.
The spirochaete (Borrelia burgdorferi) associated with Lyme disease was detected in questing ticks and rodents during a period of 18 years, 1991–2009, at five locations on the Outer Banks of North Carolina. The black‐legged tick (Ixodes scapularis) was collected at varied intervals between 1991 and 2009 and examined for B. burgdorferi. The white‐footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus), house mouse (Mus musculus) marsh rice rat (Oryzomys palustris), marsh rabbit (Sylvilagus palustris), eastern cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus) and six‐lined racerunner (Cnemidophorus sexlineatus) were live‐trapped, and their tissues cultured to isolate spirochaetes. Borrelia burgdorferi isolates were obtained from questing adult I. scapularis and engorged I. scapularis removed from P. leucopus, O. palustris and S. floridanus. The prevalence of B. burgdorferi infection was variable at different times and sites ranging from 7 to 14% of examined questing I. scapularis. Mitochondrial (16S) rRNA gene phylogenetic analysis from 65 adult I. scapularis identified 12 haplotypes in two major clades. Nine haplotypes were associated with northern/Midwestern I. scapularis populations and three with southern I. scapularis populations. Sixteen isolates obtained from tick hosts in 2005 were confirmed to be B. burgdorferi by amplifying and sequencing of 16S rRNA and 5S‐23S intergenic spacer fragments. The sequences had 98–99% identity to B. burgdorferi sensu stricto strains B31, JD1 and M11p. Taken together, these studies indicate that B. burgdorferi sensu stricto is endemic in questing I. scapularis and mammalian tick hosts on the Outer Banks of North Carolina.  相似文献   

18.
A serosurvey for Tahyna virus (TAHV), a mosquito‐borne California encephalitis orthobunyavirus (Peribunyaviridae) endemic to Europe, was performed to estimate the activity of TAHV on a broad geographic scale. Sera from wild boar (Sus scrofa), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) were collected from Austria, Hungary and Romania. Samples were tested for neutralizing antibodies against TAHV using a virus microneutralization assay. The results demonstrate that TAHV transmission to mammals is widespread in Europe, particularly in the wild boar population where the mean rate of seroconversion is 15.2%.  相似文献   

19.
Kabuto Mountain virus (KAMV), the new member of the genus Uukuvirus, was isolated from the tick Haemaphysalis flava in 2018 in Japan. To date, there is no information on KAMV infection in human and animals. Therefore, serological surveillance of the infection among humans and wild mammals was conducted by virus-neutralization (VN) test and indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA). Sera of 24 humans, 59 monkeys, 171 wild boars, 233 Sika deer, 7 bears, and 27 nutria in Yamaguchi Prefecture were analyzed by VN test. The positive ratio of humans, monkeys, wild boars, and Sika deer were 20.8%, 3.4%, 33.9% and 4.7%, respectively. No positive samples were detected in bears and nutria. The correlation coefficients between VN test and IFA in human, monkey, wild boar, and Sika deer sera were 0.5745, 0.7198, 0.9967 and 0.9525, respectively. In addition, KAMV was detected in one pool of Haemaphysalis formosensis ticks in Wakayama Prefecture. These results indicated that KAMV or KAMV-like virus is circulating among many wildlife and ticks, and that this virus incidentally infects humans.  相似文献   

20.
Central European tick‐borne encephalomyelitis can be challenging to diagnose in dogs because the virus may not be detected in blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) after the first viremic stage of the disease. The purpose of this retrospective case series study was to describe 3 Tesla magnetic resonance imaging (3T MRI) findings in a sample of dogs with a confirmed diagnosis of tick‐borne encephalomyelitis. Dogs were included if they had neurological signs consistent with tick‐borne encephalomyelitis, history of a stay in endemic areas for tick‐borne encephalomyelitis virus, 3T MRI of the brain and/or spinal cord, cerebrospinal fluid changes compatible with viral infection and positive antibody titers in cerebrospinal fluid or pathologic confirmation of tick‐borne encephalomyelitis. Twelve dogs met inclusion criteria. Ten out of 12 patients had 3T MRI lesions at the time of presentation. One patient had persistent lesions in follow‐up MRI. The 3T MRI findings included bilateral and symmetrical gray matter distributed lesions involving the thalamus, hippocampus, brain stem, basal nuclei, and ventral horn on the spinal cord. All lesions were hyperintense in T2‐weighted sequences compared to white matter, iso‐ to hypointense in T1‐weighted, nonenhancing, and had minimal or no mass effect or perilesional edema. Six patients survived while the remaining six dogs were euthanized. Necropsy revealed neuronophagia and gliosis of the gray matter of the affected regions seen in 3T MRI, in addition to the cerebellum. Findings from the current study indicated that tick‐borne encephalomyelitis should be included in the differential diagnosis list for dogs with the above described 3T MRI characteristics.  相似文献   

设为首页 | 免责声明 | 关于勤云 | 加入收藏

Copyright©北京勤云科技发展有限公司  京ICP备09084417号