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1.
While most human Salmonella infections result from exposure to contaminated foods, an estimated 11% of all Salmonella infections are attributed to animal exposures, including both direct animal handling and indirect exposures such as cleaning cages and handling contaminated pet food. This report describes the epidemiologic, environmental and laboratory investigations conducted in the United States as part of the response to an international outbreak of tetracycline‐resistant Salmonella enterica serotype I 4,[5],12:i:‐ infections with over 500 illnesses occurring from 2008 to 2010. This investigation found that illness due to the outbreak strain was significantly associated with exposure to pet reptiles and frozen feeder rodents used as food for pet reptiles. Salmonella isolates indistinguishable from the outbreak strain were isolated from a frozen feeder mice‐fed reptile owned by a case patient, as well as from frozen feeder mice and environmental samples collected from a rodent producing facility (Company A). An international voluntary recall of all Company A produced frozen feeder animals sold between May 2009 and July 2010 occurred. Only 13% of cases in our investigation were aware of the association between Salmonella infection and mice or rats. Consumers, the pet industry, healthcare providers and veterinarians need to be aware of the potential health risk posed by feeder rodents, whether live or frozen. Frozen feeder rodent producers, suppliers and distributors should follow the animal food labelling requirements as described in 21 CFR §501.5, and all packages of frozen feeder rodents should include safe handling instructions. Persons should wash their hands thoroughly with soap and water after handling live or frozen feeder rodents, as well as reptiles or anything in the area where the animals live. Continued opportunities exist for public health officials, the pet industry, veterinarians and consumers to work together to prevent salmonellosis associated with pet food, pets and other animals.  相似文献   

2.
Reptiles are one of the fastest growing sectors in the United States pet industry. Reptile‐associated salmonellosis (RAS) continues to be an important public health problem, especially among children. We investigated an outbreak of human Salmonella infections resulting from serotypes Cotham and Kisarawe, predominately occurring among children. An outbreak of illnesses was identified in persons with exposure to pet bearded dragon lizards. Human and animal health officials, in cooperation with the pet industry, conducted epidemiologic, traceback and laboratory investigations. Onsite sampling was conducted at two US breeding facilities, one foreign breeding facility, and a large pet retail chain. A total of 166 patients in 36 states were identified with illness onset dates from 02/2012–06/2014. The median patient age was 3 years (range, <1–79 years), 57% were aged ≤5 years, and 37% were aged ≤1 year. Forty‐four patients (37%) were hospitalized, predominantly children. Sampling at breeding facilities and a national pet store chain resulted in isolation of outbreak serotypes at each facility; isolation proportions ranged from 2%–24% of samples collected at each facility.Epidemiologic, microbiologic and traceback evidence linked an outbreak of uncommon Salmonella serotypes to contact with pet bearded dragons. The high proportion of infants involved in this outbreak highlights the need to educate owners about the risk of RAS in children and the potential for household contamination by pet reptiles or their habitats. Strategies should be developed to improve breeding practices, biosecurity and monitoring protocols to reduce Salmonella in the pet reptile trade.  相似文献   

3.
Zoonotic Salmonella infections cause approximately 130 000 illnesses annually in the United States. Of 72.9 million US households owning at least one pet, five million own small mammals; 3000 hedgehogs were documented by USDA in USDA‐licensed breeding facilities and pet stores in 2012. State health department collaborators and PulseNet, the national bacterial subtyping network, identified human infections of a Salmonella Typhimurium outbreak strain, which were investigated by CDC, USDA‐APHIS and state public and animal health officials. A case was defined as an illness in a person infected with the outbreak strain identified between 1 December 2011 and 3 June 2013. Investigators collected information on patient exposures, cultured animal and environmental specimens for Salmonella, and conducted traceback investigations of USDA‐licensed hedgehog facilities. There were 26 cases in 12 states. Illness onset dates ranged from 26 December 2011 to 8 April 2013. The median patient age was 15 years (range = <1–91 years); 58% were female. Among 23 persons with available information, 8 (35%) were hospitalized and one outbreak strain‐associated death was reported. Of 25 patients with available information, 20 (80%) reported pet hedgehog contact in the week before illness onset. The outbreak strain was isolated from animal and environmental samples collected from three ill persons’ homes in three states. Hedgehogs were purchased in geographically distant states from USDA‐licensed breeders (10/17, 59%); a USDA‐licensed pet store (1/17, 6%); unlicensed or unknown status breeders (3/17, 18%); and private individuals (3/17, 18%). Traceback investigations of USDA‐licensed facilities did not reveal a single source of infection. Public and animal health collaboration linked pet hedgehog contact to human infections of Salmonella Typhimurium, highlighting the importance of a One Health investigative approach to zoonotic salmonellosis outbreaks. More efforts are needed to increase awareness among multiple stakeholders on the risk of illness associated with pet hedgehogs.  相似文献   

4.
Salmonella Heidelberg and Salmonella Typhimurium are among the most common serotypes responsible for human salmonellosis in Ontario. Introduction of the Ontario Investigation Tools (OIT) in 2014 allowed for standardized case investigation and reporting. This study compared the risk factors and symptomatology for sporadic S. Heidelberg and S. Typhimurium cases reported in Ontario in 2015, following implementation of the OIT. Multilevel logistic regression models were applied to assess associations between serotype and individual‐level demographic characteristics, exposures and symptoms for sporadic confirmed cases of S. Heidelberg and S. Typhimurium in Ontario in 2015. There were 476 sporadic cases of S. Typhimurium (n = 278) and S. Heidelberg (n = 198) reported in Ontario in 2015. There were significant associations between the odds of the isolate from a case being one of these serotypes, and travel, consumption of sprouts (any type), contact with reptiles and development of malaise, fever or bloody diarrhoea. The S. Typhimurium and S. Heidelberg cases differed in both symptom presentation and risk factors for illness. Case–case comparisons of Salmonella serotypes have some advantages over case–control studies in that these are less susceptible to selection and recall bias while allowing for rapid comparison of cases to identify potential high‐risk exposures that are unique to one of the serotypes when compared to the other. Comparing cases of two different Salmonella serotypes can help to highlight risk factors that may be uniquely associated with one serotype, or more strongly associated with one serotype compared to another. This information may be useful for understanding relative source attribution between common serotypes of Salmonella.  相似文献   

5.
Campylobacteriosis is an enteric illness caused by bacteria of the genus Campylobacter. There are approximately 900 culture‐confirmed cases of campylobacteriosis reported annually to the Minnesota Department of Health (MDH). Case patients are interviewed about risk factors, including foods eaten, recreational and drinking water exposures and animal contact. In September 2013, MDH identified two Campylobacter jejuni cases who reported working at the same wildlife rehabilitation centre before illness onset. This report describes the investigation, which used a case–control study design, and identified 16 additional ill persons, for a total of 18 ill persons. Both cases and controls reported working with a variety of animals, including squirrels, chipmunks, mice, raccoons, opossums, rabbits, songbirds, waterfowl and reptiles. In univariate analyses, contact with a number of different animal species was significantly associated with illness, including raccoons (odds ratio [OR], 11.1; P < 0.001), chipmunks (OR, 3.65; P = 0.01), opossums (OR, 4.38; P = 0.005), mice (OR, 4.18; P = 0.01) and rabbits (OR, 4.36; P = 0.003). In a multivariate model, contact with raccoons was the only exposure independently associated with illness (adjusted OR, 12.2; P = 0.01). Bacterial culture and subtyping of the outbreak strain of C. jejuni from raccoon faecal samples further implicated raccoons as the source of the outbreak. Not all of the cases reported handling raccoons, suggesting that environmental contamination contributed to transmission. MDH worked with the wildlife rehabilitation centre's management to strengthen biosecurity and infection control protocols.  相似文献   

6.
Reptile‐associated salmonellosis (RAS) occurs when Salmonella is transmitted from a reptile to a human. This study describes the epidemiology of RAS in Minnesota during 1996–2011. All Minnesotans with confirmed Salmonella infections are reported to the Minnesota Department of Health (MDH). Case patients are interviewed about illness characteristics and risk factors, including foods eaten, drinking and recreational water exposures, contact with ill people, and animal contact. Willing RAS case patients can submit stool from the reptile for culture. Serotype and pulsed‐field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) subtype of Salmonella isolates from reptiles and case patients are compared. Of 8389 sporadic (not associated with an outbreak) non‐typhoidal salmonellosis case patients in Minnesotans during 1996–2011, 290 (3.5%) reported reptile exposure. The median age of case patients with reptile exposure was 11 years, 31% were under the age of 5 years and 67% were under the age of 20 years; 50% were female. The median illness duration was 8 days; 23% required hospitalization. The most commonly reported reptile exposures were lizard (47%), snake (20%), turtle (19%) and a combination of reptile types (14%). Eighty‐four per cent of isolates from case patients who reported reptile exposure were Salmonella enterica subspecies I. The three most common serotypes were Typhimurium (15%), Enteritidis (7%) and subspecies IV serotypes (7%). Of 60 reptiles testing positive for Salmonella, 36 (60%) yielded the same Salmonella serotype as the human isolate. Twenty‐six of 27 reptile isolates that were subtyped by PFGE were indistinguishable from the human isolate. Of these, 88% were subspecies I; the most common serotypes were Enteritidis (12%), Typhimurium (8%), and Bareilly (8%). RAS accounts for approximately 3.5% of salmonellosis cases in Minnesota, primarily affecting children. The majority of isolates from case patients and reptiles belonged to Salmonella subspecies I, suggesting that reptiles are a source of human infection with serotypes not traditionally considered to be reptile‐associated.  相似文献   

7.
A multi-state outbreak investigation of Salmonella Typhimurim cases associated with pet snakes and the frozen vacuum-packed rodents used to feed them identified a Texas frozen feeder rodent facility (Supplier A) as the source of the Salmonella-infected frozen rodents. Texas authorities collected samples directly from Supplier A. Seven Salmonella-positive samples out of 49 environmental swabs were found and one adult mouse out of 88 frozen feeder rodents was Salmonella-positive by culture. No Salmonella strains were isolated from rodent feeds. The pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) subtype patterns of S. Typhimurium isolates from feeder rodent and environment samples were indistinguishable from the outbreak strain isolated from humans. A follow-up investigation was performed on all additional feeder rodent facilities identified in Texas. Salmonella was isolated at one of four facilities; seven of 100 rodent samples were positive for Salmonella at this facility. The serotype S. I 4,[5],12:i:- was isolated from seven feeder rodent samples, and PFGE patterns of the seven isolates were indistinguishable. As observed in the initial outbreak investigation, no Salmonella were cultured from rodent feeds at any of the facilities. The feeder rodent industry is an insufficiently recognized industry in the United States. Outbreak investigation and testing of additional feeder rodent facilities in Texas indicate that further evaluation of feeder rodent facilities as a source of Salmonella for pet snakes and humans is warranted.  相似文献   

8.
Dogs have been implicated in the zoonotic transmission of numerous pathogens. Whereas cats are known to transmit Francisella tularensis to humans via bite and other routes, the role of dogs in facilitating infection is much less understood. We reviewed tularaemia case investigation records collected through national surveillance during 2006–2016 to summarize those with dog involvement, characterize the nature of dog‐related exposure and describe associated clinical characteristics. Among 1,814 human tularaemia cases, 735 (41%) supplemental case investigation records were available for review; and of those, 24 (3.3%) were classified as dog‐related. Median age of patients was 51 years (range: 1–82); 54% were female. Two thirds (67%) of cases presented with ulceroglandular/glandular tularaemia; pneumonic (13%) and oropharyngeal (13%) illness occurred less frequently. Dog‐related exposures were classified as follows: direct contact via bite, scratch or face snuggling/licking (n = 12; 50%); direct contact with dead animals retrieved by domestic dogs (n = 8; 33%); and contact with infected ticks acquired from domestic dogs (n = 4; 17%). Prevention of dog‐related tularaemia necessitates enhanced tularaemia awareness and tick avoidance among pet owners, veterinarians, health care providers and the general public.  相似文献   

9.
In the United States, multistate Salmonella outbreaks are most commonly linked to a food source; however, contact with live animals can also result in outbreaks of human illness. To characterize Salmonella outbreaks linked to animal contact and examine differences compared to foodborne outbreaks, we analysed data reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention through the National Outbreak Reporting System (NORS) from 2009 to 2014 with a primary mode of transmission listed as “animal contact” or “food.” Four hundred and eighty‐four outbreaks with animal contact or foodborne transmission were reported through NORS; of these outbreaks, 99 (20.5%) resulted from Salmonella transmission through animal contact and 385 (79.5%) resulted from foodborne transmission, which resulted in 3,604 (19.8%) and 13,568 (80.2%) illnesses, respectively. A higher proportion of illnesses among children aged <1 year and children aged 1–4 years were linked to animal contact outbreaks compared to foodborne outbreaks (15.2% vs. 1.4%, p < 0.01 and 24.5% vs. 5.6%, p < 0.01, respectively). Illnesses resulting in hospitalizations (OR: 1.81, 95% CI: 1.62, 2.02) were more likely to be associated with animal contact compared to food. Animal contact outbreaks reported to NORS were more likely to be multistate compared to foodborne outbreaks (OR: 5.43, 95% CI: 3.37, 8.76) and had a longer median duration (99.0 days vs. 9.0 days, p < 0.01). Characterizing the differences between outbreaks of illness linked to animal contact and outbreaks linked to food provides useful information to investigators to improve public health response.  相似文献   

10.
In 2010, a West Nile virus (WNV) epidemic was reported in Central Macedonia, Northern Greece, with 197 neuroinvasive disease (WNND) cases in humans. The following 3 years, WNV spreads to new areas of Greece and human cases reoccurred during the transmission periods. After the initial outbreak, a WNV surveillance system using juvenile backyard chickens was established in Central Macedonia (after the 2011 outbreak) and Eastern Macedonia‐Thrace (after the 2012 outbreak). Sera were screened for the presence of antibodies against WNV using cELISA and serum neutralization test, to monitor the spread of WNV and to assess the correlation between the WNV point seroprevalence in chickens and the incidence rates of human WNND cases in the aforementioned areas. WNV seroprevalence in chickens was 10.4% (95% CI: 7–15) in Central Macedonia (2011) and 18.1% (95% CI: 14–23) in Eastern Macedonia‐Thrace (2012). Seroprevalence in chickens and incidence rates of human WNND cases in Eastern Macedonia‐Thrace were strongly positively correlated (ρ = 0.98, P = 0.005) at the regional unit level, with the incidence of WNND in humans increasing with increasing WNV point seroprevalence in chickens. In Central Macedonia, the correlation was weaker (ρ = 0.68, P = 0.20), apparently due to small number of reported human WNND cases. Another study was also conducted using juvenile backyard chickens in Central Macedonia, aiming to detect early WNV enzootic circulation, before the onset of human cases during 2011 and 2013. The first seroconverted chickens were detected about 1.5 months before the laboratory diagnosis of any human WNND cases in Central Macedonia, for both years. WNV surveillance, using juvenile backyard chickens, was reliable for the identification of areas with WNV enzootic and silent transmission, and for early warning. Timely diffusion of information to public health authorities facilitated the successful implementation of preparedness plans to protect public health.  相似文献   

11.
In the 3 years since the first report of canine alveolar echinococcosis (AE) in Ontario, three additional cases have been diagnosed in the province. Of the four cases reported to date, three have had no known history of travel outside the province. It is possible that this development is an indication of previously unrecognized environmental contamination with Echinococcus multilocularis eggs in some areas of the province. If so, there is the potential for an emerging threat to human health. This article describes a local public health department's investigation of the possible exposure to E. multilocularis of a number of individuals who had had contact with the latest of the four cases of canine AE, and summarizes a comprehensive decision process that can be used by public health departments to assist in the follow‐up of such exposures.  相似文献   

12.
We analysed the individual-animal data from six of the nine outbreaks of tuberculosis in Canadian cattle and cervids from 1985 to 1994. A “positive/reactor” animal was one which had either a positive culture or a positive or suspicious reaction on a mid-cervical, comparative cervical, or gross or histopathological test for tuberculosis. Individual-animal data were collected only for herds which had one or more positive/reactor animals. Data were collected from the outbreak records in the Regional or District offices of Agriculture and Agri-food Canada’s Animal and Plant Health Directorate. The within-herd spread of Mycobacterium bovis was studied by determining the most-likely date at which the herd was first exposed to M. bovis and the number of reactions which had developed by the time the herd was investigated. The animal-time units at risk in the herd were probably overestimated, resulting in conservative estimates of the within-herd incidence rates. Negative-binomial regression was used to investigate factors which might have influenced the within-herd spread of tuberculosis. Increasing age appeared to be a risk factor for being a positive/reactor animal. When compared to animals 0–12 months old, animals 13–24 months old had an incidence rate ratio (IRR) of 7.6, while animals >24 months old had an IRR of 10.4 (p=0.009). Actual and predicted incidence rates for tuberculosis in mature (>24 months old) animals were calculated. Actual and predicted incidence rates were similar for cervids, within an outbreak. There was more variability between actual and predicted rates in the dairy and beef animals. In the one outbreak (Ontario) where there were positive/reactor cervid, dairy and beef herds, the actual incidence rate for cervids (IR=9.3 cases per 100 animal-years) was almost twice that of dairy cattle (IR=5.0) and three times that of beef cattle (IR=3.1).  相似文献   

13.
This study was designed to evaluate the epidemiology of severe gastroenteritis in children living in Québec rural areas with intensive livestock activities. From September 2005 through June 2007, 165 cases of gastroenteritis in children aged from 6 months to 5 years, hospitalized or notified to the public health department were enrolled, and 326 eligible controls participated. The parents of cases and controls were asked questions about different gastroenteritis risk factors. The quality of the drinking water used by the participants was investigated for microbial indicators as well as for four zoonotic bacterial pathogens (Campylobacter spp, Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp and Yersinia spp) and two enteric parasites (Cryptosporidium spp and Giardia spp). From 134 stool specimen analysed, viruses were detected in 82 cases (61%), while 28 (21%) were found with at least one of the bacteria investigated, and five cases were infected by parasites. Campylobacteriosis was the main bacterial infection (n = 15), followed by Salmonella sp (n = 7) and E. coli O157:H7 (n = 5) among cases with bacterial gastroenteritis. No significant difference was found between cases and controls regarding the quality of water consumed; the frequency of faecal contamination of private wells was also similar between cases and controls. Considering the total cases (including those with a virus), no link was found between severe gastroenteritis and either being in contact with animals or living in a municipality with the highest animal density (4th quartile). However, when considering only cases with a bacterial or parasite infection (n = 32), there was a weak association with pig density that was not statistically significant after adjusting for potential confounders. Contact with domestic, zoo or farm animals were the only environmental factor associated with the disease.  相似文献   

14.
Reptile contact can result in zoonotic non‐typhoidal salmonellosis. In April 2018, Oregon Public Health Division contacted CDC about a cluster of four Salmonella serovar Fluntern (SF) illnesses in four states (OR, CA, IA, NY); patients reported contact with geckos, a popular reptile pet. PulseNet, the national molecular subtyping network of food‐borne disease surveillance, subsequently identified additional SF clinical isolates. Twelve cases in 11 states were identified; median age was 5 years (range: <1–58 years). Three patients were hospitalized; no deaths were reported. Of those with exposure information (n = 10), all reported reptile exposure; 9 (90%) specified contact with leopard geckos. No common source of geckos was identified from reported purchase locations. Los Angeles County (LAC) health officials isolated SF from one patient's leopard gecko. Five reptile/gecko isolates were identified from the USDA National Veterinary Services Laboratories (NVSL) from 2015 to 2018. Five countries responded to an Epidemic Intelligence Information System post by PulseNet; reptile isolate sequence data were received from Czech Republic. A clinical case from England was identified through the National Center for Biotechnology Information pathogen detection pipeline; the patient did not report contact with leopard geckos. Whole genome sequencing analysis revealed substantial genetic diversity between clinical and animal isolates; however, gecko and clinical isolates from LAC were highly related (1 allele difference). This investigation linking SF illnesses to leopard geckos highlights an important public health risk from pets. A better understanding of how geckos are distributed by the pet industry in the United States could improve traceability to points of origin and mitigate Salmonella transmission at gecko breeders. Earlier NVSL reports of SF isolates from geckos suggest the risk of human SF infection from geckos is not new. This investigation demonstrates a need to educate gecko breeders, retailers and gecko owners about the continued Salmonella infection risk from pet geckos.  相似文献   

15.
Endemic zoonoses, such as Q fever and spotted fever group (SFG) rickettsiosis, are prevalent in South Africa, yet often undiagnosed. In this study, we reviewed the demographics and animal exposure history of patients presenting with acute febrile illness to community health clinics in Mpumalanga Province to identify trends and risk factors associated with exposure to Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Q fever, and infection by SFG Rickettsia spp. Clinical and serological data and questionnaires elucidating exposure to animals and their products were obtained from 141 acutely febrile patients between 2012 and 2016. Exposure or infection status to C. burnetii and SFG Rickettsia spp. was determined by presence of IgG or IgM antibodies. Logistic regression models were built for risk factor analysis. Clinical presentation of patients infected by SFG rickettsiosis was described. There were 37/139 (27%) patients with a positive C. burnetii serology, indicative of Q fever exposure. Patients who had reported attending cattle inspection facilities (“dip tanks”) were 9.39 times more likely to be exposed to Q fever (95% CI: 2.9–30.4). Exposure risk also increased with age (OR: 1.03, 95% CI: 1.002–1.06). Twenty‐one per cent of febrile patients (24/118) had evidence of acute infection by SFG Rickettsia spp. Similarly, attending cattle inspection facilities was the most significant risk factor (OR: 8.48, 95% CI: 1.58–45.60). Seropositivity of females showed a significant OR of 8.0 when compared to males (95% CI: 1.49–43.0), and consumption of livestock was associated with a decreased risk (OR: 0.02, 95% CI: 0.001–0.54). A trend between domestic cat contact and SFG rickettsiosis was also noted, albeit borderline non‐significant. In this endemic region of South Africa, an understanding of risk factors for zoonotic pathogens, including exposure to domestic animals, can help clinic staff with diagnosis and appropriate therapeutic management of acutely febrile patients as well as identify target areas for education and prevention strategies.  相似文献   

16.
A cross‐sectional study was performed between school term dates 2014 and 2015 to diagnose intestinal parasites in dogs and children living with them. The socio‐environmental characteristics and hygiene practices of the children were also evaluated in terms of risk factors for parasitic infection of periurban neighbourhoods of La Plata (Buenos Aires, Argentina). Serial coproparasitological samples of 78 dogs and 211 children were analysed by means of concentration and flotation techniques. Socio‐environmental variables and hygiene practices of children were evaluated through semi‐structured questionnaires which were answered by every family. The study showed that 82.1% of dogs were parasitized. The specific richness was of 11 species; Ancylostoma caninum (69.2%), Uncinaria stenocephala (41.0%), Trichuris vulpis (28.2%) and Toxocara canis (21.8%) were the most prevalent. The study also revealed that 67.8% of children were positive. Also, 11 species were identified and the most prevalent were Blastocystis sp. (36.0%), Enterobius vermicularis (27.5%) and Giardia lamblia (21.3%). The risk for parasitosis was higher in 6‐year‐old children and older (OR = 1.9, 95% IC: 1.0–3.7) and in those who did not wash their hands or did it occasionally after playing with their pets (OR = 2.8, 95% IC: 1.4–5.5). Blastocystis sp. and Entamoeba coli infection risks were greater in children whose parents had a basic level of education (OR = 3.4, 95% IC: 1.3–8.7 and OR = 3.6, 95% IC: 0.8–15.9, respectively). In addition, the risk of infection for E. coli was higher in children who lived in floodable houses (OR = 4.4, 95% IC: 0.9–16.6). Likewise, the risk of infection for E. vermicularis was greater in children with onychophagia (OR = 1.6, 95% IC: 0.7–3.7) and in 6 year olds and older whose parents completed only primary studies (OR = 3.6, 95% IC: 1.4–9.1). The results obtained show the existence of a worrying epidemiological scenario that stresses the importance of zoonotic parasitosis as a serious problem of public health.  相似文献   

17.
Cryptosporidium spp. and Shiga toxin‐producing Escherichia coli strains (STEC) are important causes of human illness. Incidence rates of these illnesses are high in South Dakota compared to the USA as a whole. Direct animal contact has been identified as a possible route of exposure for these illnesses. Ruminant animals may carry STEC subclinically, while young ruminants are common sources of zoonotic strains of Cryptosporidium. South Dakota patients with either STEC or cryptosporidiosis during 2012 were interviewed regarding seven categories of animal exposure: (i) petting zoo/fair attendance, (ii) animal event/rodeo attendance, (iii) feed/pet store visits, (iv) farm visits, (v) employment or residence at a farm, (vi) residence with pets and (vii) visiting other households with pets. Of the 50 STEC cases, 78.0% reported animal exposure prior to illness onset, with 23.3% having lived or worked on a farm. Farm visitors in particular had high degrees of animal contact and infrequently practiced personal protective measures. Of the 115 cryptosporidiosis cases, 87.8% reported animal exposures, with 45.6% having lived or worked on a farm and 29.0% having visited a farm prior to illness. Cases with farm exposures reported a high degree of direct animal contact and inconsistent use of personal protective measures. Cryptosporidiosis patients were significantly more likely than STEC patients to have lived or worked on a farm prior to their illness and were older on average. Patients with these illnesses had high rates of animal contact prior to illness. Animal contact on farms emerged as an important exposure route. Educational messages about personal protective measures should be directed at these individuals.  相似文献   

18.
Campylobacter is the most frequently occurring cause of bacterial gastroenteritis in Europe. Unlike other zoonotic diseases, European‐wide incidences of Campylobacter infections have increased during the past decade, resulting in a significant disease burden. In Denmark, campylobacteriosis is notifiable by laboratory and a unique registration system of electronic transfer and storage of notified Campylobacter cases linked to the national person register of age, gender and geographical location allows collection of comprehensive case data. Using national surveillance data, we describe Campylobacter infections in Denmark from 2000 to 2015, focusing on age‐specific incidences, geography, seasonality and outbreaks. During the observed period, a total of 60,725 Campylobacter infections were registered with a mean annual incidence of 69.3 cases/100,000 population. From 2000 to 2014, the incidence of campylobacteriosis decreased by 20%, followed by an apparent increase of 20% from 2014 to 2015. Approximately one‐third of cases were travel‐related. Incidences were highest in males, young adults aged 20–29 years and children under 5 years of age. Generally, children under 10 years of age living in rural areas were at higher risk of infection. Infection patterns were seasonal with an increase from May to October, peaking in August. Outbreaks were identified each year, including four large waterborne outbreaks which all occurred following heavy rainfall events. For the most part, patterns of Campylobacter infection in Denmark during 2000 to 2015 remained remarkably constant and followed what is known about the disease with respect to demographic, temporal and spatial characteristics. To establish better targeted prevention and control measures, the current knowledge gaps regarding both Campylobacter microbiology (degree of clonal diversity and clustering) and the importance of different risk factors (food versus environment/climate) need to be filled.  相似文献   

19.
Leptospirosis is a bacterial zoonosis that affects many mammals, including humans and dogs; dogs can transmit the bacteria to humans, but the frequency of transmission and highest risk exposures are poorly understood. During 2016–2017, the Maricopa County Department of Public Health, Arizona Department of Health Services and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention investigated the zoonotic potential of a canine leptospirosis outbreak in the Phoenix metro area. We identified symptomatic persons exposed to canine leptospirosis cases by conducting active and passive surveillance. We tested dog owners (n = 9) and animal care providers (n = 109) for serological evidence of Leptospira spp. infection (via the microscopic agglutination test [MAT]) and interviewed these persons about their specific exposures to canine cases and general exposures to canine blood and urine. Through surveillance, seven symptomatic persons were identified; six were tested and all were negative by MAT, and of these six, four persons were negative by PCR (two did not have PCR testing). All serosurvey participants (n = 118) were also seronegative. Among animal care providers, bare skin contact with urine/blood from a canine case was reported by 23.2%; two persons reported dog urine splashing in their face. Veterinary technicians were more likely to have bare skin contact with blood from a canine case compared to veterinarians and boarding facility staff (p < 0.001). Infection control practices were inconsistent; when working with specimens from a canine leptospirosis case, 44.6% of participants reported always wearing gloves when working with urine (i.e., collecting specimens), and 54.5% always wore gloves when working with blood. Veterinary technicians were also most likely to engage in all activities involving potential urine/blood contact, such as conducting laboratory tests (p < 0.01). We therefore recommend that veterinary technicians specifically receive targeted education about infection control practices. Our results suggest that dog‐to‐human transmission of leptospirosis is uncommon.  相似文献   

20.
Cache Valley virus (CVV) is a mosquito‐borne RNA virus detected throughout North America, Central America and parts of South America. A limited number of human case reports have described severe illness. CVV infection has been associated with outbreaks of congenital defects in small ruminants in Canada and the United States. A scoping review was conducted to identify, characterize and summarize research on CVV, and to identify research gaps. A structured search was conducted in eight electronic databases, with additional search verification and grey literature investigation. All captured studies were independently appraised by two reviewers for relevance and data characterization. The review captured 143 relevant studies investigating CVV epidemiology (n = 104), pathogenesis (n = 37), viral characteristics (n = 24), transmission (n = 14), diagnostic test performance (n = 8) and mitigation strategies (n = 2). Evidence of CVV infection was found in mosquito studies (n = 47), and serological evidence of exposure was demonstrated in animals (n = 41), as well as human (n = 20) studies. In sheep, five outbreaks of birth defects following asymptomatic dam CVV infection during the first 50 days of pregnancy were reported. Only six human cases of CVV‐associated illness were captured, with case symptoms described as initially non‐specific, progressing to more severe clinical signs (e.g., meningitis). No research was identified investigating treatment, societal knowledge and risk perception, economic burden or predictive models related to the impact of climate change on CVV. CVV circulates in mosquito and animal species across a large area of the Americas. Small ruminants are the only animals in which CVV‐associated clinical disease has been extensively studied. It is likely that human cases are under‐reported or misdiagnosed. Future research should focus on the impact of CVV infection in human and animal populations.  相似文献   

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