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1.
??Context
In the construction sector, wood is facing competition with other materials such as concrete, steel or plastics. Therefore, there is a need for more efficiency in the forest–wood chain by improving silvicutural management and wood processing technologies.??Aims
The objective of the study is to analyse the influence of log diameter and quality to recovery rate, veneer quality and economic benefit.??Methods
The trees used in the study came from a 30-year-old Pinus taeda L. thinning trial in Southern Brazil. In total, 57 logs (20.7 to 67.0 cm) were peeled following the standard industrial processing methods of the plywood mill.??Results
Average recovery rate was 54 % ranging from 35 to 72.6 %, with a linear trend (R 2?=?0.48) of increasing recovery with an increment on the log small-end diameter. Results show that the gap between theoretically possible and real recovery was lower in the logs with bigger diameters, indicating their higher efficiency in industrial processing. Moreover, the economic analysis detected that the current prices for log assortments reflect only the industrial potential of low-quality pruned logs. An optimised pruning strategy would result in higher industrial efficiency, which would allow higher log prices.??Conclusion
The results indicate that the recovery rate of bigger logs is higher in terms of volume of peeled veneer. The quality and therefore the value obtained from each log were negatively influenced by inadequate pruning strategies. Management of pines for higher value utilisation requires optimized thinning and pruning strategies in order to meet high growth rates and proportionally bigger dimensions of clear wood. 相似文献2.
Guillermo Riesco Muñoz Andrés Remacha Gete Manuel Gasalla Regueiro 《Annals of Forest Science》2013,70(7):695-706
Context
The commercial feasibility of sawmilling depends on the expected volume and value of sawn planks. Models that predict the volume of sawn timber of a particular quality and produced from logs of known characteristics are therefore very useful.Aims
The objectives were to study variation in sawing yield and to obtain models that predict lumber volume and grade recovery on the basis of easy-to-measure predictor variables of saw logs.Methods
Forty-six oak trees growing in Galicia (NW Spain) were felled and cut into logs. The logs were visually graded and sawn mainly into quartersawn planks, which were dried, planed and visually graded for structural purposes.Results
The total volumetric sawing yield was 47.6 %. The sawing yield for planks of structural dimensions (cross-section, 70?×?120 or 70?×?170 mm) was 43.4 %, but decreased to 8.4 % for structural sized and quality grade beams because of wane and biotic damage in many pieces. Log grade did not significantly affect sawing yield in the sample analysed, despite the wide range of diameter over bark at the smallest end in the sampled logs (22–77 cm). The sawing pattern affected total sawing yield (F?=?4.913; p value?=?0.001) and the sawing yield for structural planks (F?=?6.142; p value?=?0.0002); radial sawing with one cut and live sawing of half logs provided the highest yields. Three models were proposed for estimating sawn volume in timber products, with the small-end log diameter over bark as the predictor variable and R adj 2 between 0.31 and 0.78 (p value?<?0.01).Conclusion
For the purpose of producing oak timber destined for structural use, the presence of bark and sapwood in planks must be reduced in the sawing process; this would decrease the total lumber recovery but increase the timber value yield. Air drying must be accelerated to reduce biotic damage in sawn planks. Geometric mean diameter over bark at the smallest end (d) outperforms other measures as a predictor variable for total or structural sawn timber volume. 相似文献3.
Jianfen Guo Guangshui Chen Jinsheng Xie Zhijie Yang Yusheng Yang 《Annals of Forest Science》2014,71(5):585-594
? Context
Coarse woody debris (CWD, ≥10 cm in diameter) is an important structural and functional component of forests. There are few studies that have estimated the mass and carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) stocks of CWD in subtropical forests. Evergreen broad-leaved forests are distributed widely in subtropical zones in China.? Aims
This study aimed to evaluate the pools of mass, C and N in CWD in five natural forests of Altingia gracilipes Hemsl., Tsoongiodendron odorum Chun, Castanopsis carlesii (Hemsl.) Hayata, Cinnamomum chekiangense Nakai and Castanopsis fabri Hance in southern China.? Methods
The mass of CWD was determined using the fixed-area plot method. All types of CWD (logs, snags, stumps and large branches) within the plot were measured. The species, length, diameter and decay class of each piece of CWD were recorded. The C and N pools of CWD were calculated by multiplying the concentrations of C and N by the estimated mass in each forest and decay category.? Results
Total mass of CWD varied from 16.75 Mg ha?1 in the C. fabri forest to 40.60 Mg ha?1 in the A. gracilipes forest; of this CWD, the log contribution ranged from 54.75 to 94.86 %. The largest CWD (≥60 cm diameter) was found only in the A. gracilipes forest. CWD in the 40–60 cm size class represented above 65 % of total mass, while most of CWD accumulations in the C. carlesii, C. chekiangense and C. fabri forests were composed of pieces with diameter less than 40 cm. The A. gracilipes, T. odorum, C. carlesii and C. chekiangense forests contained the full decay classes (from 1 to 5 classes) of CWD. In the C. fabri forest, the CWD in decay classes 2–3 accounted for about 90 % of the total CWD mass. Increasing N concentrations and decreasing densities, C concentrations, and C:N ratios were found with stage of decay. Linear regression showed a strong correlation between the density and C:N ratio (R 2?=?0.821). CWD C-stock ranged from 7.62 to 17.74 Mg ha?1, while the N stock varied from 85.05 to 204.49 kg ha?1. The highest overall pools of C and N in CWD were noted in the A. gracilipes forest.? Conclusion
Differences among five forests can be attributed mainly to characteristics of the tree species. It is very important to preserve the current natural evergreen broad-leaved forest and maintain the structural and functional integrity of CWD. 相似文献4.
Jean-Daniel Bontemps Pierre Gelhaye Gérard Nepveu Jean-Christophe Hervé 《Annals of Forest Science》2013,70(4):329-343
? Context
While historical increases in forest growth have been largely documented, investigations on historical wood density changes remain anecdotic. They suggest possible density decreases in softwoods and ring-porous hardwoods, but are lacking for diffuse-porous hardwoods.? Aims
To evaluate the historical change in mean ring density of common beech, in a regional context where a ring-porous hardwood and a softwood have been studied, and assess the additional effect of past historical increases in radial growth (+50 % over 100 years), resulting from the existence of a positive ring size–density relationship in broadleaved species.? Methods
Seventy-four trees in 28 stands were sampled in Northeastern France to accurately separate developmental stage and historical signals in ring attributes. First, the historical change in mean ring density at 1.30 m (X-ray microdensitometry) was estimated statistically, at constant developmental stage and ring width. The effect of past growth increases was then added to assess the net historical change in wood density.? Results
A progressive centennial decrease in mean ring density of ?55 kg?m?3 (?7.5 %) was identified (?10 % following the most recent decline). The centennial growth increase induced a maximum +25 kg?m?3 increase in mean ring density, whose net variation thus remained negative (?30 kg?m?3).? Conclusions
This finding of a moderate but significant decrease in wood density that exceeds the effect of the positive growth change extends earlier reports obtained on other wood patterns in a same regional context and elsewhere. Despite their origin not being understood, such decreases hence form an issue for forest carbon accounting. 相似文献5.
Mark Alexander Butler Joseph Dahlen Thomas L. Eberhardt Cristian Montes Finto Antony Richard F. Daniels 《Annals of Forest Science》2017,74(1):20
Key message
Loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda ) logs can be evaluated using acoustic velocity whereby threshold acoustic velocity values can be set to ensure lumber meets specified mechanical property design values for modulus of elasticity.Context
There is a need to better sort logs according to lumber quality for improved decision making and wood utilization because merchantable logs are being harvested from different stand types including natural forests, conventional plantations, and intensively managed plantations, all with differences in rotation ages, growth rates, and wood quality traits.Aims
This study aimed to link tree- and lumber-length log acoustic velocity with the resulting lumber properties as tested in static bending from five intensively managed loblolly pine stands in the Atlantic Coastal Plain of Georgia.Methods
Acoustic velocity was measured using the resonance-based approach on 87 tree-length logs and 244 lumber-length logs. The logs were then processed into 797 pieces of 38 mm by 89 mm (2×4), 140 mm (2×6), 184 mm (2×8), and 235 mm (2×10) dimension lumber, dried, and tested in static bending.Results
Mean MOE of the lumber had moderate relationships with acoustic velocity of the logs (R 2 = 0.49) whereas MOR and acoustic velocity did not have a strong relationship (R 2 = 0.20). Accounting for log position increased the performance of the mean lumber MOE model (R 2 = 0.62) which was further increased by adding green density and small-end diameter (R 2 = 0.67). Utilization of acoustics was effective for segregating logs based on lumber modulus of elasticity and did not depend on knowing tree or stand information such as age, site quality, and silviculture history.Conclusion
Acoustic velocity evaluation of tree- and lumber-length logs could be employed to segregate logs within the supply chain to ensure that lumber would meet specified design values.6.
Variations of wood basic density with tree age and social classes in the axial direction within Pinus massoniana stems in Southern China 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
Xiangwen Deng Liyun Zhang Pifeng Lei Wenhua Xiang Wende Yan 《Annals of Forest Science》2014,71(4):505-516
Context
Reliable estimates of wood density (WD) within individual trees could maximize the value of Pinus massoniana for specific end-use.Aim
We examined and quantified the axial patterns of WD in trees with different social status in the stands.Methods
Wood disks were sampled at the bottom, breast height, and middle of each 1-m sections from 108 stems, harvesting from three social classes in subtropical forests. A mixed-effects model was designed to quantify axial variation.Results
The WD at different height was significantly different from the whole-stem WD (WWD) except the relative height of 0.1. An overall decrease of 133.8 kg m?3 in WD was found from stem base to top. WD was significantly influenced by relative heights, tree age, and social class. WD of each relative height in mature trees was significantly higher than that of younger trees. Tree social class can affect WD development in the axial direction at age classes 2 and 3. Combining the fixed plus random effects, the final model explained 91 % of the observed variation in WD.Conclusion
The WD development patterns in the axial direction vary considerably among tree age, diameter at breast height, and social class. To distinguish and supply timber for specific end-uses, we should use the axial variation in disk WD (DWD) instead of WWD directly. The accurate predictions of WD provided by the model could be used to optimally classify logs into different product classes and maximize economic benefits. We can use DWD at the relative height of 0.1 instead of WWD of a single tree. 相似文献7.
Shakti S. Chauhan Monika Sharma Jimmy Thomas Luis A. Apiolaza David A. Collings John C. F. Walker 《Annals of Forest Science》2013,70(4):439-449
? Introduction
There has been an increasing interest in very early selection of radiata pine to reduce the breeding cycle for solid wood products. For such selection, new approaches are required to assess wood quality in wood from very young stems.? Methods
Nursery seedlings of clones of radiata pine were grown in leant condition using two leaning strategies for 18–20 months. Opposite wood and compression wood were isolated from the leaning stems and tested for dynamic modulus of elasticity, density, longitudinal shrinkage, volumetric shrinkage and compression wood area using new methods evolved for testing small size samples quickly and reliably. The methods were tested for their efficiency in differentiating clones by their wood properties.? Results
Leaning of stems provided distinct opposite and compression wood for testing. Automated image analysis method used for compression wood area assessment was found to be a quick and effective method for processing large number of samples from young stems. Compression wood was characterised by high basic density, high longitudinal shrinkage and low volumetric shrinkage than that of opposite wood. Acoustic velocity in opposite wood had a strong negative association with longitudinal shrinkage. The study signifies the importance of preventing mixing of opposite wood with compression wood while assessing wood quality in young stems thus making leaning a critical strategy. The comparison of wood properties of opposite wood revealed significant differences between clones. Opposite wood of the clone with the lowest dynamic modulus of elasticity exhibited the highest longitudinal shrinkage.? Conclusion
Significant differences in measurable wood properties between clones suggest the prospects of early selection for solid wood products. 相似文献8.
9.
Jan Suszka Beata P. Plitta Marcin Michalak Barbara Bujarska-Borkowska Tadeusz Tylkowski Paweł Chmielarz 《Annals of Forest Science》2014,71(5):543-549
Context
Black poplar (Populus nigra L.) is an alluvial forest tree species whose genetic pool is decreasing in Europe. Poplar trees produce short-lived seeds that do not store well.Aim
The feasibility of seed storage in conventional and cryogenic conditions after their desiccation from water content (WC) of 0.15 to 0.07 g H2O g?1 dry mass (g g?1) was investigated.Methods
Seed germinability was evaluated (seeds with a radicle and green cotyledons were counted) after storage of seeds for a period of 3 to 24 months at different temperatures: 20°, 10°, 3°, ?3°, ?10°, ?20° or ?196°C.Results
Seeds desiccated to a 0.07 g g?1 WC can be stored successfully at ?10 °C and ?20 °C for at least 2 years. A significant decrease in germination was observed only after 12 months of seed storage (WC 0.15 g g?1) at temperatures above 0 °C. We demonstrated that both fresh (0.15 g g?1 WC) and desiccated (0.07 g g?1 WC) seeds can be preserved at ?196 °C for at least 2 years.Conclusions
Seed storage temperature and time of storage were statistically significant factors affecting seed storability. The presented data provide a foundation for the successful gene banking of P. nigra seeds. 相似文献10.
Andreas Rais Werner Poschenrieder Hans Pretzsch Jan-Willem G. van de Kuilen 《Annals of Forest Science》2014,71(5):617-626
? Context
Mechanical wood properties are increasingly relevant for structural applications and are influenced by growing space availability. Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) has an increasing market share in Europe and is mainly processed to sawn timber.? Aim
A sample of 164 thinning trees was taken from two Douglas-fir long-term forestry research plots in Germany. The end-use quality of about 2,000 side and center boards was analyzed as a function of initial plant density (1,000, 2,000, and 4,000 trees per hectare) and log position within the stem.? Methods
Sawn timber quality was described by knottiness, density, modulus of elasticity, and strength. Explanatory parameters were radial position, longitudinal position, and initial plant density. All boards were strength graded visually and by the grading machine GoldenEye-706 using both X-rays for detecting densities and size as well as position of knots and laser interferometry for detecting eigenfrequency (DIN 4074, DIN 2012; EN 14081-2, CEN 2010).? Results
High plant density led to better mechanical sawn timber quality. Significant differences were especially observed between 1,000 and 2,000 trees per hectare. The yield of machine strength-graded center boards of strength class C24 increased from 50 to 89 % at low and high initial plant density, respectively.? Conclusion
Foresters are able to improve end-product quality by controlling planting density in particular. The roundwood price that foresters get should be based on the proportion of higher strength classes within logs to give incentives for a more quality-oriented forest management. 相似文献11.
John R. Moore Andrew J. Lyon Gregory J. Searles Stefan A. Lehneke Daniel J. Ridley-Ellis 《Annals of Forest Science》2013,70(4):403-415
Context
Information on wood properties variation is needed by forest growers and timber processors to best utilise the available forest resource and to guide future management.Aim
This study aims to quantify the variation in selected properties of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) structural timber.Methods
Twelve harvest-age stands were selected, ten trees per site were felled and processed into 301 logs. Dynamic modulus of elasticity (MOEdyn) was measured on each tree and log using portable acoustic instruments. Logs were processed into structural timber and its MOE and bending strength was determined.Results
Overall, the timber satisfied the MOE, bending strength and density requirements for the C16 strength class. Approximately 25 % of the total variation in timber mechanical properties was attributed to between-stand differences, with the remaining 75 % attributed to within-stand differences. A series of equations were developed to predict site, tree and log-level variation in timber properties.Conclusion
Knowledge of the site and stand factors that are associated with differences in timber properties can assist with segregation of the current resource. Portable acoustic tools can also be used to increase the stiffness of sawn timber by segregating out individual trees and logs that will yield low stiffness timber. 相似文献12.
Farshad Keivan Behjou 《林业研究》2013,24(3):585-589
Waste wood was studied in an economic enterprise by logging, function, tree species and log size in four Caspian hardwood sites. Damaged logs were recorded with additional information obtained for the location, dimensions and type of damage. The data were analyzed statistically to determine significant differences of damage during logging process. The results indicated that animal harvesting systems cause more volume (40.5% of log volume) and value loss (89.5 $·m?3) to logs than mechanized harvesting systems (13.9% and 6.0 $·m?3), also bucking resulted in significantly more volume (9.9% of log volume) and value loss (5.5 $·m?3) when compared to skidding (0.2% of log volume and 0.2 $·m?3), decking (0.4% of log volume and 0.2 $·m?3) and loading (0.2% of log’s volume and 0.3 $·m?3) operations. Study showed that the processes of skidding, decking and loading of logs have very little impact on damage levels. Volume and value losses of damaged logs are not sensitive to tree species and log size. The information from the field study is important in creating new guidelines or training to help minimize hardwood log damage during the timber harvesting process. 相似文献
13.
Giulia Attocchi 《Annals of Forest Science》2013,70(7):663-673
Context
Avoidance or control of epicormic shoots is among the major silvicultural challenges for the production of high-quality oak timber. In northern Europe, contemporary oak silviculture aims to produce valuable timber on a relatively short rotation, applying early, heavy thinning combined with artificial pruning.Aims
The aim of this study was to analyse the effects of pruning and stand density on the production of new epicormic shoots on young trees of pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.).Methods
The study was based on two field experiments in even-aged stands of pedunculate oak subjected to different thinning practices and early selection of potential future crop trees. From ages 13 to 15 years, stem density was reduced to 300 trees ha?1, 1,000 ha?1 or stands remained unthinned. Pruning was conducted on selected trees at ages 22–24 years. At that age, the stem density in unthinned control plots ranged from 2,500 to 3,100 ha?1. All treatments were replicated twice within each experiment.Results
Pruning led to an overall increase in the total production of new epicormic shoots. More epicormic shoots were produced in the lower part of the stem (0–3 m in height) than in the upper part (3–6 m). The number of new epicormic shoots increased with increasing stand density.Conclusion
Early, heavy thinning combined with high pruning at regular intervals may help shorten the rotation length for pedunculate oak without further reduction in wood quality than that which is caused by wider annual growth rings. 相似文献14.
? Context
A clear understanding of the genetic control of wood properties is a prerequisite for breeding for higher wood quality in Populus tomentosa Carr. hybrid clones.? Aims
The experiments aimed at unraveling genetic and environmental effects on wood properties among triploid hybrid clones of P. tomentosa.? Methods
We used 5-year-old clonal trials established in Northern China to assess the heritability of wood density and fiber traits. Two hundred seventy trees from nine clones were sampled in five sites.? Results
Site had a very significant effect on all recorded traits. Despite this large site effect, a tight genetic control was detected and clonal repeatability varied between 0.53 and 0.95. Significant genotype?×?environment interactions were detected for most of the traits. Moderate to tight correlation were evidenced among traits but they were not consistent with that in several cases that were site-dependent.? Conclusions
Our results revealed a tight genetic control over several wood properties and therefore breeding programs might be able to improve wood density, fiber length, and coarseness in these hybrids. 相似文献15.
Carbon storage in biomass,litter, and soil of different plantations in a semiarid temperate region of northwest China 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
? Context
A large area of abandoned land in the semiarid temperate region of China has been converted into plantations over the past decades. However, little information is available about the ecosystem C storage in different plantations.? Aim and methods
Our objective was to estimate the C storage in biomass, litter, and soil of four different plantations (monospecific stands of Larix gmelinii, Pinus tabuliformis, Picea crassifolia, and Populus simonii). Tree component biomass was estimated using allometric equations. The biomasses of understory vegetation and litter were determined by harvesting all the components. C fractions of plant, litter, and soil were measured.? Results
The ecosystem C storage were as follows: Picea crassifolia (469 t C/ha)?>?Larix gmelinii (375 t C/ha), Populus simonii (330 t C/ha)?>?Pinus tabuliformis (281 t C/ha) (P?<?0.05), 59.5–91.1 % of which was in the soil. The highest tree and understory C storage were found in the plantation of Pinus tabuliformis (247 t/ha) and Larix gmelinii (1.2 t/ha) respectively. The difference in tree C fraction was significant among tree components (P?<?0.05), following the order: leaf?>?branch?>?trunk?>?root. The highest soil C (SC) was stored in Picea crassifolia plantation (411 t C/ha), while Populus simonii plantation had a higher SC sequestration rate than others.? Conclusion
C storage and distribution varied among different plantation ecosystems. Coniferous forests had a higher live biomass and litter C storage. Broadleaf forests had considerable SC sequestration potential after 40 years establishment. 相似文献16.
17.
Anne-Sophie Sergent Nathalie Bréda Léopoldo Sanchez Jean-Charles Bastein Philippe Rozenberg 《Annals of Forest Science》2014,71(6):709-720
Context
Since the 2003 drought and heat wave, Douglas-fir dieback has been reported in France in trees older than 30 years. Consequently, it is questioned whether selected Douglas-fir provenances are suited to the frequent and severe drought events which are forecast due to climate change.Aims
Our objective was to contribute to the screening of variability in productivity and growth response to soil-water deficit of mature trees from provenances not currently used for plantation in France.Methods
We sampled 22 provenances, including coastal and interior Douglas-fir, covering a wide part of its natural distribution, from Oregon to California for coastal provenances and from British Columbia to New Mexico for interior provenances. These provenances were planted at the mid 1970s in two provenance trials located in the south-west area of France. Variability of productivity, of wood density, and of radial growth in response to drought episodes among provenances was quantified and related to soil-water deficit computed by daily water balance calculations.Results
Whatever the provenance, annual radial growth is highly dependent on local soil-water deficit (Felines R 2 = 0.57, Le Treps R2 = 0.49). Radial growth and wood properties exhibit large differences between provenances at 30 years old. Variability between provenances for all wood characteristics studied is mainly structured geographically. Coastal provenances perform best for productivity at 30 years old (619 cm2?±?59), and exhibit a small growth reduction in 2004, the second successive year of drought (?10.7 %?±?3.8). Surprisingly, the southern interior provenances from the driest environments in the natural range show a large growth reduction in 2004 (?30.5 %?±?5.2).Conclusions
The provenances tested exhibited significant differences in growth performance and growth reduction induced by the soil-water deficit. The approach coupling retrospective analysis of radial growth on mature trees and water balance modelling is relevant for evaluating provenance adaptation to more frequent or severe drought episodes. 相似文献18.
Dehai Zhao Michael Kane Robert Teskey Daniel Markewitz Dale Greene Bruce Borders 《Annals of Forest Science》2014,71(8):843-851
Context
To sustainably manage loblolly pine plantations for bioenergy and carbon sequestration, accurate information is required on the relationships between management regimes and energy, carbon, and nutrient export.Aims
The effects of cultural intensity and planting density were investigated with respect to energy, carbon, and essential nutrients in aboveground biomass of mid-rotation loblolly pine plantations, and the effects of harvesting scenarios on export of nutrients were tested.Methods
Destructive biomass sampling of a 12 years-old loblolly pine culture/density experiment, and analysis of variance were used to assess the effects of cultural intensity (operational vs. intensive) and six planting densities ranging from 741 to 4,448 trees ha?1. Two harvesting scenarios (stem-only vs. whole-tree harvesting) were assessed in terms of energy, carbon, and nutrient export.Results
The concentrations of energy, carbon, and nutrients varied significantly among stem wood, bark, branch, and foliage components. Cultural intensity and planting density did not significantly affect these concentrations. Differences in energy, carbon and nutrient contents among treatments were mainly mediated by changes in total biomass. Nutrient contents were affected by either cultural intensity or planting density, or both. Stem-only harvesting removed 71–79 % of aboveground energy and carbon, 29–45 % of N, 28–44 % of P, 44–57 % of K, 51–65 % of Ca, and 50–61 % of Mg.Conclusions
Stem-only harvesting would be preferred to whole-tree harvesting, from a site nutrient conservation perspective. 相似文献19.
Gauthier Ligot Thibaut Gheysen François Lehaire Jacques Hébert Alain Licoppe Philippe Lejeune Yves Brostaux 《Annals of Forest Science》2013,70(3):309-318
? Context
Over the past few decades, the impact of large herbivorous ungulates on forest vegetation has been clearly highlighted. Among those impacts, bark stripping of coniferous trees is one of the most damaging. Bark stripping leads to rot development, inducing serious loss of timber value.? Aims
The present study aimed firstly at evidencing the factors explaining the variations observed in fresh bark peeling rate for spruce and Douglas-fir in southern Belgium and secondly at identifying the key factors to consider when setting up a deer management plan.? Method
Fresh bark peeling rate was recorded with a systematic sampling survey from 2004 to 2007. The covered territory was then divided into 63 distinct hunting zones of area ranging from 1,000 to 25,000 ha. About 5,000 plots were monitored annually. Each zone was characterized with a large number of explanatory variables. The explanatory variables were integrated firstly into fixed linear models using a stepwise procedure, and then into a mixed model.? Results
The significant variables included in the model (R 2?=?44 %) are (by decreasing order of importance) red deer densities, proportion of coniferous stands and agricultural areas, snow cover, distance to urban habitats, and species diversity in the understory.? Conclusion
The models revealed the impacts of several factors on bark peeling: deer density, deer-carrying capacity of the territory, landscape structure, and severity of winter conditions. The adjusted model allowed subtracting the impact of winter conditions in order to produce a relevant indicator for hunting management. In addition, the model was used to assess the sensitivity of a forested area to bark peeling based on its environmental characteristics. 相似文献20.