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1.
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2.
This article reviews the actual world FMD situation. In 2000, fifty nine countries officially reported outbreaks of FMD. The disease occurred in Europe (Greece), Asia (Russia, Mongolia, Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Japan, Laos, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam, Iran, Iraq, Turkey, in Caucasian region--Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia as well as in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan), Africa (Egypt, Kenya, Mauritania, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe) and in South America (Brazil, Colombia, Uruguay, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and Venezuela). In 2001, FMD was still spreading throughout the endemic regions and appeared in some of the west European countries--Great Britain, The Netherlands, France and Ireland. In South America, FMD occurred in Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil and Colombia. In Asia the FMD spread in Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Mongolia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Yemen, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Iran, Bhutan, Nepal, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Taiwan. The FMD situation in Africa was unclear, but probably most countries in West, East and South Africa were affected. The most recent data of the OIE from May 2002 confirmed FMD outbreaks in population of pigs in Republic of Korea.  相似文献   

3.
Prior to 2000, foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) had not been observed in Mongolia since 1973; however, between April 2000 and July 2002, Mongolia reported 44 FMD outbreaks that affected cattle, sheep, goats, and camels. The objectives of this study were to describe the distributions of the 44 reported FMD outbreaks in Mongolia and to assess their spatial clustering and directions of movement. Official reports were collected to obtain the number and species of animals both affected and at risk, and the date and geographical coordinates of each outbreak. Significant global and local spatial clusters of reported FMD outbreaks were identified. Disease spread during the second epidemic moved 76° northeast and the spread of the disease during the third epidemic moved 110° northwest. FMD outbreaks were clustered intensely close to other FMD-positive counties. These findings can be used in the future to help plan prevention and control measures in high risk areas.  相似文献   

4.
The re-emergence of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in Botswana is reported. The disease outbreak occurred in the Matsiloje Extension Area of Francistown veterinary district situated in the northeastern part of the country in an Office International des épízooties (OIE) recognized FMD free zone without vaccination. The disease affected cattle only and did not spillover into sheep and goats resident in the same extension area, as demonstrated by lack of seroconversion to FMD when tested. The virus isolate associated with the outbreak was identified as FMD virus; Southern African Territories (SAT) type SAT-2. The disease outbreak is discussed in relation to FMD outbreaks that have occurred previously within and outside Botswana.  相似文献   

5.
The opinions of a number of recognised world experts on foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) were sought in order to answer key questions relating to the importation of the disease into European countries from countries outside Europe. In addition, their opinions were sought on where in Europe a primary outbreak of FMD was most likely to occur and the number of outbreaks likely to occur within European countries in the next five years. The Balkans group of countries was considered to be the most likely group within Europe to have a primary outbreak of FMD and also most likely to have the highest number of primary outbreaks. Turkey was considered to be the country outside Europe which was most likely to be the source of an outbreak within Europe as a whole, and the illegal importation of livestock was considered to be the most likely route of introduction of FMD into Europe. Results specific to the Islands group of countries, which included the UK and Ireland, suggested that this group was likely to have a mean of one primary outbreak of FMD in the five years from September 2000, and that the importation of foodstuffs by people entering those countries from Turkey was the most likely source of an outbreak.  相似文献   

6.
We estimated the spatial distribution of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in Pakistan; we used a probability co-kriging model and the number of FMD outbreaks reported between 1996 and 2000 by Pakistan to the Office International des Epizooties. We used a k-Bessel model and small-ruminant and human densities as surrogate covariates for the population at risk and for livestock markets and movements, respectively. Compared to no or only one covariate, the co-kriging model with both densities provided the best fit to independently obtained data on the spatial distribution of virus isolations (P = 0.57). The estimated probability of an FMD outbreak per 25 km2 cell ranged from 0.017 to 0.812, with the maximum relative probability of 47.8 (0.812/0.017). Areas with the highest relative probability of having an FMD outbreak were located in the Punjab region; this is a major animal-production area located along a traditional international animal-trade route.  相似文献   

7.
Using the stochastic and spatial simulation model of between-farm spread of disease, InterSpread Plus, we evaluated the effect of alternative strategies for controlling the 2002 epidemic of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in the Republic of Korea. InterSpread Plus was parameterised to simulate epidemics of FMD in the population of farms containing susceptible animal species in the Korean counties of Yongin, Icheon, Pyongtaek, Anseong, Eumseong, Asan, Cheonan, and Jincheon. The starting point of our analyses was the simulation of a reference strategy, which approximated the real epidemic. The results of simulations of alternative epidemic-control strategies were compared with this reference strategy. Ring vaccination (when used with either limited or extended pre-emptive depopulation) reduced both the size and variability of the predicted number of infected farms. Reducing the time between disease incursion and commencement of controls had the greatest effect on reducing the predicted number of infected farms.  相似文献   

8.
Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) is considered to be endemic throughout mainland South-East Asia (SEA). The South-East Asia and China FMD (SEACFMD) campaign is a regional control programme which has been ongoing since 1997. The programme encourages countries to submit reports of outbreaks regularly. This paper evolved from a collaboration with SEACFMD to evaluate 10 years worth of reporting. All publicly available outbreak reports (5237) were extracted from the ASEAN Region Animal Health Information System (ARAHIS) for the period from 2000 to mid 2010. These reports included date, outbreak location (at the province and district level) and serotype (if known) plus information on the outbreak size and affected species. Not all records had complete information on the population at-risk or the number of animals affected. This data was transferred into a spatially enabled database (along with data from other sources) and analysed using R and SaTScan. Outbreak serotype was unknown in 2264 (43%) of reports and some countries had very few laboratory confirmed cases (range <1-86%). Outbreak reports were standardised by number of villages in each province. Outbreak intensity varied however there did not appear to be a consistent pattern, nor was there any seasonal trend in outbreaks. Spatial and spatio-temporal cluster detection methods were applied. These identified significant clusters of disease reports. FMD is endemic across the region but is not uniformly present. ARAHIS reports can be regarded as indicators of disease reporting: there may be reports in which laboratory confirmation has not occurred, and in some cases clinical signs are inconsistent with FMD. This raises questions about the specificity of the data. Advances in decentralised testing techniques offer hope for improved verification of FMD as the cause of disease outbreaks. Advances in molecular typing may provide a substantial leap forward in understanding the circulation of FMD in South East Asia.  相似文献   

9.
OBJECTIVE: To estimate potential revenue impacts of an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in the United States similar to the outbreak in the United Kingdom during 2001. DESIGN: Economic analysis successively incorporating quarantine and slaughter of animals, an export ban, and consumer fears about the disease were used to determine the combined impact. SAMPLE POPULATION: Secondary data for cattle, swine, lambs, poultry, and products of these animals. PROCEDURE: Data for 1999 were used to calibrate a model for the US agricultural sector. Removal of animals, similar to that observed in the United Kingdom, was introduced, along with a ban on exportation of livestock, red meat, and dairy products and a reduction and shift in consumption of red meat in the United States. RESULTS: The largest impacts on farm income of an FMD outbreak were from the loss of export markets and reductions in domestic demand arising from consumer fears, not from removal of infected animals. These elements could cause an estimated decrease of $14 billion (9.5%) in US farm income. Losses in gross revenue for each sector were estimated to be the following: live swine, -34%; pork, -24%; live cattle -17%; beef, -20%; milk, -16%; live lambs and sheep, -14%; lamb and sheep meat, -10%; forage, -15%; and soybean meal, -7%. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Procedures to contain an outbreak of FMD to specific regions and allow maintenance of FMD-free exports and efforts to educate consumers about health risks are critical to mitigating adverse economic impacts of an FMD outbreak.  相似文献   

10.
An essential objective of an effective foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) eradication campaign is to shorten the infectious period by rapidly detecting and destroying cases of disease. The purpose of our investigation was to identify factors associated with the early detection of clinical FMD during the 2001 outbreak in the United Kingdom. We performed a logistic regression analysis, using early versus late detection of disease as the outcome of interest.During the 2001 FMD outbreak in the United Kingdom, infected premises were more likely to be detected early under the following circumstances: 1) cattle (particularly dairy) were infected rather than sheep; 2) a recently confirmed infected premises was within 3 km of the new case; and 3) the case was initially reported by the farmer, rather than a Local Disease Control Centre-initiated surveillance activity (patrol, tracing, pre-emptive cull). Our findings suggest that reporting by farmers and initiatives that increase farmer education and awareness should be encouraged.  相似文献   

11.
During 1999, 11 outbreaks of foot and mouth disease (FMD) were declared in the east and central part of Morocco. All the FMD clinical cases reported were cattle. In order to analyse the serological status of sheep from the FMD outbreak areas, 598 sheep sera were tested using a liquid-phase blocking ELISA (LPBE) to detect antibodies against FMDV structural proteins. The study confirmed the presence of FMDV specific antibodies in 77 clinically normal sheep, indicating that unrecognised FMDV-infected sheep could represent a potential risk of FMD dissemination in Morocco.Subsequently, sera from flocks of sheep that had been exposed to FMD outbreaks were assayed by an indirect ELISA using the recombinant FMDV non-structural protein 3ABC expressed in E. coli to evaluate the potential use of this serological test in future epidemiological studies and the development of FMD control strategies. The results indicated that the 3ABC-ELISA was able to detect antibodies indicative of infection with FMDV in asymptomatic sheep in field conditions.  相似文献   

12.
The spatial scan statistic was applied to density-smoothed data that approximated the spatial distribution within the area and reduced the potential bias produced when location data have been aggregated for large areas. The method is illustrated, using data on the location of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreaks in Iran. Data examined were 4477 FMD outbreaks reported on a per province basis between June 1996 and September 2003. A kernel density of the outbreak locations was estimated, using a fixed radius and the centroid of each province as the designated location of all cases reported for the province. The radius that produced a density map with the highest correlation with expert opinion was 4° (latitude/longitude). Livestock density was used as a proxy for the underlying population at risk of acquiring FMD. Livestock and outbreak density maps were overlain to obtain the number of outbreaks and livestock in each of 15,599 cells covering the mapped surface of the country. A spatial scan statistic was applied to the density-smoothed data assuming that the outbreaks had a Poisson distribution. Results were compared with those obtained using a spatial scan statistic on provincially aggregated data. Application of the spatial scan statistic on the density-smoothed data allowed identification of clusters (P < 0.01) related more to the actual geographic distribution of cases (expert opinion) and of animals at risk, than to the distribution of the provinces. Significant clusters of FMD were identified that coincided with roads, neighboring countries, and high-density population areas, suggesting that the region may represent a route for cross-continent transmission of FMD.  相似文献   

13.
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals. In Uganda, FMD outbreaks are mainly controlled by ring vaccination and restriction of animal movements. Vaccination stimulates immunity and prevents animals from developing clinical signs which include lameness, inappetence, and decreased production. Ring vaccination and restriction of animal movements have, however, not successfully controlled FMD in Uganda and outbreaks reoccur annually. The objective of this study was to review the use of FMD virus (FMDV) vaccines and assess the effectiveness of vaccination programs for controlling FMD in Uganda (2001–2010), using retrospective data. FMD vaccine distribution patterns in Uganda (2001–2010) matched occurrence of outbreaks with districts reporting the highest number of outbreaks also receiving the largest quantity of vaccines. This was possibly due to “fire brigade” response of vaccinating animals after outbreaks have been reported. On average, only 10.3 % of cattle within districts that reported outbreaks during the study period were vaccinated. The average minimum time between onset of outbreaks and vaccination was 7.5 weeks, while the annual cost of FMDV vaccines used ranged from US $58,000 to 1,088,820. Between 2001 and 2010, serotyping of FMD virus was done in only 9/121 FMD outbreaks, and there is no evidence that vaccine matching or vaccine potency tests have been done in Uganda. The probability of FMDV vaccine and outbreak mismatch, the delayed response to outbreaks through vaccination, and the high costs associated with importation of FMDV vaccines could be reduced if virus serotyping and subtyping as well as vaccine matching were regularly done, and the results were considered for vaccine manufacture.  相似文献   

14.
An outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in Great Britain was reported on 21 February 2001, followed by an outbreak of FMD in The Netherlands a month later. This Dutch index outbreak occurred on a mixed, veal-calf/dairy-goat farm in Oene, in the central part of The Netherlands. The most-likely route of infection was the import of Irish veal-calves to this Dutch herd via an FMD-contaminated staging point in France. With hindsight, more herds seemed to be infected by the time the index outbreak was confirmed. The regular EU control measures were implemented, in combination with pre-emptive culling of herds within 1km of each outbreak. Nevertheless, more outbreaks of FMD occurred. Most of the virus infections on those farms were "neighborhood infections". Because the situation seemed out of control locally and the destruction capacity became insufficient, it was decided to implement an emergency vaccination strategy for all biungulates in a large area around Oene to stop further spread of the virus. All susceptible animals on approximately 1800 farms in this area were vaccinated. All farms subsequently were depopulated, starting from 2 weeks after vaccination. In total, 26 outbreaks were detected (the last outbreak on 22 April 2001). In total, approximately 260,000 animals were killed.  相似文献   

15.
Central Luzon is the number one pig-producing region in the Philippines and was affected by Foot-and-Mouth disease (FMD) in 1995. In this paper, the impact of FMD on the Central Luzon meat market from 1995 to 1999 was examined. Employing the error correction model (ECM) and historical decomposition, the impact of FMD on the Central Luzon pork and chicken meat market was quantified. The following findings were observed: (a) pig farm and pork wholesale prices dropped 11.8% and 15.7%, respectively, after the initial FMD outbreaks in January, 1995; (b) in February, 1995, chicken farm and wholesale prices declined by 21.1% and 14.2%, respectively (while chicken retail prices also went down by 10.5%); (c) the margins of pig and chicken traders were also adversely affected at some point; and (d) FMD caused changes of dynamic interdependence among prices by meat type at different levels of the meat supply chain.  相似文献   

16.
A retrospective cohort study of 116 British pig farms was undertaken to investigate the epidemiological risk factors associated with herd breakdowns with postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS). Farmers reported the PMWS status of their herd (case definition 1) and, where applicable, when the disease was first suspected and what they observed; they described a prolonged increase in mortality in six to 16-week-old pigs that was not attributable to any disease known to be on their farm. There was over 90 per cent agreement on the farmers' PMWS status between the farmers and their veterinarians. Approximately 70 per cent of the breakdowns were confirmed at the laboratory (case definition 2) except during the outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in 2001 when it was reduced to 30 per cent. Porcine circovirus type 2 antigen was detected in pigs examined postmortem (case definition 3) in approximately 90 per cent of the farms with increased mortality. The breakdowns occurred initially in the south of England and spread west and north, as well as locally in a radial pattern from the affected farms, and there was strong statistical evidence that there was non-random space-time clustering. The risk of herd breakdowns with PMWS was not constant; therefore, for each case definition, three survival models were developed with outcome variable time to breakdown of between January 2000 and January 2001, February 2001 to September 2001 (during FMD) or October 2001 to December 2003. Exposures with a bivariable significance of P<0.20 were tested in three multivariable Cox proportional hazard models. From January 2000 to January 2001 the risk of a herd breakdown with PMWS for definitions 1, 2 and 3 was greater for farms with 600 or more breeding sows, and for definitions 1 and 3 there was an increased risk associated with the purchase of replacement gilts rather than using homebred replacements. For definitions 1 and 3 the farms where the nearest pig farm had no breeding pigs were at greater risk of a breakdown than those where the nearest farm had breeding stock, as were the farms where visitors were not requested to avoid pigs for more than three days before visiting the farm during the FMD outbreak. From October 2001, the associated risks were identical for all three case definitions; farms were at greater risk when they had 600 or more breeding sows, if visitors had not avoided contact with pigs for more than three days before visiting the farm, and when there was a farm with PMWS less than five miles away. The affected farms were more likely to have disease associated with porcine parvovirus, porcine reproduction and respiratory syndrome virus, erysipelas, Escherichia coli and salmonella. These exposures were positively associated with large herds and the farm being close to other pig farms, but did not remain in the final models for breakdown with PMWS, indicating that such farms may be at greater risk of many infectious diseases.  相似文献   

17.
Vaccination of susceptible animals against foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a well established strategy for helping to combat the disease. Traditionally, FMD vaccine has been used to control a disease incursion in countries where the disease has been endemic rather than in countries considered free of the disease. In 2001, the use of vaccine was considered but not implemented in the United Kingdom (1), whereas vaccine was used to help to control FMD in The Netherlands (2,3). Canadian contingency plans provide for the use of vaccine; Canada is a member of the North American Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccine Bank, which could supply vaccine if needed. This article explains why Canada might use FMD vaccine to combat an outbreak and the factors that are relevant to the disposal of vaccinated animals and their products. It concludes that vaccination is an important mechanism in Canada's preparedness for an outbreak of FMD and that products from vaccinated animals are safe for human consumption.  相似文献   

18.
An outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) occurred in Surrey on August 3, 2007. A Great Britain-wide ban on livestock movements was implemented immediately. This coincided with the start of seasonal sheep movements off the hills in Scotland; the majority of these animals are sold via markets. The ban therefore posed severe economic and animal-welfare hardships if it was to last through September and beyond. The Scottish Government commissioned an analysis to assess the risk of re-opening markets given the uncertainty about whether FMD had entered Scotland. Tracing of livestock moved from within the risk zone in England between July 16 and August 3 identified contact chains to 12 Scottish premises; veterinary field inspections found a further three unrecorded movements. No signs of infection were found on these holdings. Under the conservative assumption that a single unknown Scottish holding was infected with FMD, an estimate of the time-dependent probability of Scotland being FMD free given no detection was made. Analyses indicated that if FMD was not detected by early to mid-September then it was highly probable that Scotland was FMD free. Risk maps were produced to visualise the potential spread of FMD across Scotland if it was to spread either locally or via market sales.  相似文献   

19.
SUMMARY: A study was undertaken in northern Thailand to examine the involvement of pigs in outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). Data were collected by surveying selected villages, by serological monitoring of pigs and by investigating outbreaks. Fifty-three of 58 villages (91%) surveyed reported that pigs did not develop FMD during the most recent outbreak. The source of 49/60 (82%) outbreaks was attributed to either recent purchases of infected cattle and buffalo or commingling of cattle and buffalo with stock from an infected neighbouring village. One of 60 villages (1.7%) reported that the source was introduced infected pigs. There was no association between the various hypothesised risk factors relating to the management of pigs and the frequency of FMD outbreaks in the survey. The percentage of seropositive pigs during 3 rounds of serological monitoring conducted at 6-monthly intervals in selected villages was 3.5%, 2.6% and 0%, respectively. No clinically affected pigs were observed in 11 outbreak investigations. It was concluded that pigs did not commonly become infected when there were outbreaks of FMD in village cattle and buffalo in northern Thailand. This was probably due to the pig feeding and housing practices employed by villagers that protected pigs from exposure to virus from infected cattle or buffalo, or their products.  相似文献   

20.
Foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) virus is the aetiological agent of an important disease of livestock and has a great global impact. The outbreak of FMD type Asia 1 in China was first confirmed at the beginning of May 2005. Subsequent outbreaks occurred in 10 areas in different provinces of China.  相似文献   

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