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1.
In order to investigate the effects of dietary fish oil replacement, the turtles (Mauremys sinensis) were fed four experimental diets for 10 months: FO (100% fish oil), FSO (70% fish oil and 30% soybean oil), SFO (30% fish oil and 70% soybean oil) and SO (100% soybean oil), sampled at pre‐vitellogenesis, vitellogenesis and post‐vitellogenesis. The results showed that plasma gonadotropin‐releasing hormone (GnRH) levels were the highest at pre‐vitellogenesis, which promoted the secretion of gonadotropin and sex steroids. Therefore, plasma luteinizing hormone (LH) and estrogen (E2) levels were significantly increased at post‐vitellogenesis (p < 0.05), while follicle‐stimulating hormone (FSH) levels increased at vitellogenesis (p < 0.05). The FO and FSO groups had significantly higher GnRH and E2 levels than the other two groups (p < 0.05). In addition, plasma vitellogenin (Vtg) levels significantly increased at vitellogenesis and post‐vitellogenesis (p < 0.05), which were significantly higher in the groups of FO and FSO than SO (p < 0.05). Moreover, the expression levels of hepatic estrogen receptor α (Erα) mRNA were significantly increased at vitellogenesis and post‐vitellogenesis while ovarian Cyp19α1α mRNA were significantly increased at post‐vitellogenesis (p < 0.05), and both were the lowest in SO. Taken together, the replacement of fish oil with 66.7% soybean oil is feasible.  相似文献   

2.
A nutrition trial with meagre, Argyrosomus regius was assessed to determine the effect of dietary replacement of fish oil (FO) by soybean oil (SO) on the growth, feed utilization, body composition, fatty acid composition and basic haematological parameters. Six isonitrogenous (47% crude protein) and isoenergetic (gross energy 22 kJ/g) experimental diets were formulated by replacing 0 (FO), 20 (S20), 40 (S40), 60 (S60), 80 (S80) and 100 (S100) % of the FO with SO. Fish were fed three times daily to near satiation for 14 weeks. The specific growth rate (SGR) of fish fed S100 diet was significantly lower than the other treatments, except SO80 diet. The fish fed SO100 diet displayed significantly higher feed conversion ratio than that of other diets (P < 0.05). It was observed that fish fed the SO100 and SO80 diets displayed haemoglobin (HGB) levels significantly lower (P < 0.05) than fish fed the SO20 diet. Packed cell volume (PCV) of fish fed SO20 diet was significantly higher compared to SO100. The white blood cell (WBC) and red blood cell (RBC) remained unaffected by dietary treatment. The docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n‐3, DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n‐3, EPA) levels of meagre were significantly reduced by the substituting of dietary SO by FO at the end of the feeding period. The level of linoleic acid (18:2n‐6, LA) and linolenic acid (18:3n‐3, LNA) significantly raised in fish fed with SO diets (P < 0.05). The results of this study showed that SO could be replaced FO up to 80% in meagre diet without negative effect on growth performance and basic haematological parameters. Furthermore, the maximum level of FO replacement with SO determined by second order polynomial regression analysis, was 30.1% on the basis of maximum SGR.  相似文献   

3.
This study investigated the effect of the replacement of fish oil (FO) with DHA‐Gold (DHA‐G)‐supplemented plant oils (PO) in rainbow trout fed plant‐protein‐based diets. Five diets (450 mg g?1 digestible protein and 150 mg g?1 crude lipid) were fed to rainbow trout (initial weight 37 ± 0.5 g) for 12 weeks in a 15 °C recirculating water system. The lipid inclusion types and levels were FO, PO and PO with DHA‐G supplemented at 30 mg g?1, 60 mg g?1 or 90 mg g?1 of the diet replacement for corn oil. Fish fed 90 mg g?1 DHA‐G were significantly larger and consumed more feed than fish‐fed PO or FO (218 g and 2.6% bwd?1 versus 181 g and 2.4% and 190 g and 2.3%, respectively). Feed conversion ratio was significantly increased in fish fed 90 mg g?1 DHA‐G (0.99) as compared to fish‐fed FO (0.90) and 30 mg g?1 DHA‐G (0.91). Panellists found trout fillets from fish fed the 90 mg g?1 DHA‐G diet to have significantly fishier aroma and flavour than fish fed the FO diet. Fatty acid analysis demonstrated that 60 mg g?1 or 90 mg g?1 DHA‐G supplementation increased PO fed fish fillet DHA to fatty acid levels equivalent or higher than those fish fed a FO diet.  相似文献   

4.
Fish (175 g of initial weight) were fed in triplicated groups with four diets formulated by 0% (FO 100), 75% (FO 25) and 100% (with and without probiotics, FO 0 and FO 0+) of fish oil replacement consisting of a mixture of linseed, sunflower and palm oils. After 109 days, growth and nutritional parameters were not affected by the treatment; however, fish fed with 0% of fish oil showed the lowest survival rate and without differences between the same diet with probiotics. As for biometric parameters, significant differences in the viscerosomatic index (VSI) were observed between fish fed the FO 0+ diet and the FO 100 and FO 25 diets. Results obtained from histological analysis did not detect inflammation in gut samples, while liver samples showed a remarkable steatosis in all four treatments. Total fish oil replacement produced a significant difference in the width of the lamina propria. The dietary inclusion of probiotics in the FO 0+ diet seems to favour a recovery of intestine histology. In addition, as fish oil substitution increased, the width of the lamina propria also increased. In conclusion, it is possible to affirm that the four diets administrated to Seriola dumerili did not compromise the correct development of the animals.  相似文献   

5.
Three isonitrogenous (520 g protein kg?1 DM) and isoenergetic (25 MJ kg?1 DM) diets containing increasing levels of flaxseed oil (FxO; 0%, 40% and 70% of total added oil) at the expense of fish oil (FO) were tested for 33 weeks in groups of 61 individually PIT‐tagged halibut (initial weight, 849 ± 99 g). Effects on fish growth performance, fillet nutritional and sensory quality were determined. Specific growth rate (0.2% day?1), feed conversion ratio (1.2–1.3) and nitrogen and energy retention were not affected by dietary treatments. Dietary fatty acid composition was reflected in fatty acid profiles of halibut muscle, liver and heart. Muscle of fish fed FxO diets contained higher 18:2n‐6 and 18:3n‐3 concentrations whereas 20:5n‐3 and 22:6n‐3 levels were significantly reduced. However, increasing FO replacement induced preferential retention of 22:6n‐3 especially in heart, and a trend for 20:5n‐3 conservation in heart and muscle was observed. FO replacement did not affect colour, texture and the characteristic fish odour and flavour of cooked fillets. By selectively retaining long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids halibut can adapt to a lower dietary supply without adverse effects on growth, feed conversion ratio, survival, and fillet nutritional and sensory quality.  相似文献   

6.
The ability of shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei to utilize soy oil (SO) modified to contain stearidonic acid (SDA) in replacement of fish oil (FO) by converting SDA to highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) was examined. Six diets with either supplemental modified SO or FO and three levels of fishmeal (FM) replacement (0%, 50% and 100%) by soybean meal (SBM) were fed to shrimp (1.7 g) for 12 weeks. The effect of oil source at the three SBM levels on growth and fatty acid profiles was examined by contrast analysis and sensory attributes by t‐tests (5% error rate). At 0% SBM inclusion, there was no effect of dietary oil source, while at the highest SBM inclusion level, shrimp fed the FO diet outperformed those fed the corresponding SO diet. Oil source had no effect on sensory attributes. The fatty acid profiles of the shrimp reflected that of the diets. SDA SO can replace supplemental FO in diets for shrimp with no reduction in growth when there is sufficient oil present from FM. At low FM, however, replacing FO with SDA SO reduces shrimp performance and tissue n‐3 HUFA levels. It is concluded that SDA is unable to meet the essential fatty acid needs of shrimp.  相似文献   

7.
Dietary fish oil (FO) was replaced by olive oil (OO) in young yellowtail Seriola quinqueradiata to investigate its effects on growth, muscular fatty acid composition and prevention of color deterioration of dark muscle during storage. Yellowtail were fed one of four diets, where FO (80 g/kg diet) was replaced by OO (0, 25, 50 and 100%) for 40 days. No significant difference in growth was seen among the diet groups. In addition, these experimental diets did not affect the proximate compositions of the dorsal muscle, ventral muscle and the liver in these fish. Serum total protein, glucose and total cholesterol levels did not show significant differences; however, serum triglyceride levels were significantly higher in fish fed 50 and 100% OO diets. Fatty acid composition of ventral muscle reflected the composition of the respective diets. Dark muscle discoloration was reduced in fish fed OO diets after 12 to 18 h during storage at 4°C. Furthermore, the redness value of fresh dark muscle increased depending on the extent of FO replacement. These results indicate that the partial or total dietary replacement of FO with OO prevents discoloration of dark muscle without affecting the growth of young yellowtail after 40 days of feeding.  相似文献   

8.
Adult Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar; approximately 800 g start weight) were fed diets with a high replacement of fish meal (FM) with plant proteins (70% replacement), and either fish oil (FO) or 80% of the FO replaced by olive oil (OO), rapeseed oil (RO) or soybean oil (SO) during 28 weeks in triplicate. Varying the lipid source only gave non‐significant effects on growth and final weight. However, a significantly reduced feed intake was observed in the SO fed fish, and both feed utilization and lipid digestibility were significantly reduced in the FO fed fish. Limited levels of dietary 18:3n‐3, precursor to EPA and DHA, resulted in no net production of EPA and DHA despite increased mRNA expression of delta‐5‐desaturase and delta‐6‐desaturase in all vegetable oil fed fish. Net production of marine protein, but not of marine omega‐3 fatty acids, is thus possible in Atlantic salmon fed 80% dietary vegetable oil and 70% plant proteins resulting in an estimated net production of 1.3 kg Atlantic salmon protein from 1 kg of FM protein. Production of one 1 kg of Atlantic salmon on this diet required only 800 g of wild fish resources (Fish in ‐ Fish out < 1).  相似文献   

9.
The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of different oils on growth performance and lipid metabolism of the grouper, Epinephelus coioides. Five experimental fish meal‐based isonitrogenous and isolipidic diets were formulated containing either 5.5%‐added fish oil (FO), soybean oil (SBO), corn oil (CO), sunflower oil (SFO) or peanut oil (PO). Each diet was fed to triplicate groups of 20 fish (initial body weight 13.2±0.02 g) grown in seawater at 28.0–30.5 °C for 8 weeks. Fish were fed twice a day to visual satiety. No significant differences in the survival, weight gain, specific growth rate, feed conversion ratio, protein efficiency ratio or hepatosomatic index were found between fish fed the FO or vegetable oils (VO) diets. Dietary lipid sources did not affect whole‐body composition among grouper fed the various diets. Muscle of fish fed the FO diet had significantly higher levels of 14:0, 16:0, 16:1n‐7, 20:5n‐3[eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)] and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)+EPA (except for PO fed fish) compared with those of fish fed VO diets. However, the levels of 18:1n‐9, 18:2n‐6 and DHA/EPA ratios in the muscle of fish fed FO diet were significantly lower than those of fish fed the VO diets. The liver of fish fed the FO diet had significantly higher levels of 18:0, 20:5n‐3, 22:6n‐3, n‐3 highly unsaturated fatty acids and DHA+EPA than those of fish fed the VO diets, whereas increases in 18:1n‐9, 18:2n‐6 and mono‐unsaturated fatty acid levels were observed in the liver of fish fed the VO diets.  相似文献   

10.
This study was undertaken to assess the effects of fish oil (FO) substitution by a mixture of alternative vegetable oils (VO) on Seriola dumerili culture performance. A 154‐day feeding experiment was conducted using juveniles (39.2 ± 1.6 g average weight). Three isolipidic and isoenergetic meal‐based diets were formulated varying their lipid component. The control diet contained 100% FO (FO100), whereas diets VO50 and VO100 included 1/2 of oil blend and all the oil from blend of palm oil (PO) and linseed oil (LO) as substitute for FO, respectively. Dietary regime did not significantly affect growth performance, biometric indices, feed efficiency, plasma chemistry and liver and muscle lipid contents. Nonetheless, dietary VO inclusion impacted on the fatty acid profile of target tissues, especially in the liver. Fatty acid profiles of the fillets reflected those of the dietary oils except that there was apparent selective utilization of palmitic acid (C16:0) and oleic acid (C18:1n‐9) and apparent selective retention of long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5n‐3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6n‐3). The nutritional value and the potential ability to prevent the development of coronary heart diseases of the flesh lipid fraction decreased with gradual FO substitution.  相似文献   

11.
The replacement of fish oil (FO) in Eriocheir sinensis can significantly reduce the cost of E. sinensis cultivation, while several studies have indicated that replacing FO with soybean oil (SO) could significantly reduce the resistance of E. sinensis to disease. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying these effects remain poorly understood. In this study, crabs were fed two diets containing FO or SO, following which a label‐free quantification proteomic analysis was employed. And the activity of enzymes involved in the nonspecific immune response was also measured. Growth performance was undifferentiated between the crabs fed with FO and SO. A total of 519 proteins were identified, and 70 proteins were significantly altered between the crabs fed the two different diets. Five proteins related to the immune response were identified to be differently expressed. C‐type lectin, haemocyanin subunit 6 and cryptocyanin were significantly downregulated, while fatty acid‐binding protein and catalase were highly expressed in the crabs fed SO. The activities of acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, superoxide dismutase and phenoloxidase were all significantly changed in crab fed with different diets. These findings will provide novel insight into the molecular mechanism regarding the replacement of FO on the immune response of E. sinensis and provide evidences for the relationship between nutrition and immunity in E. sinensis.  相似文献   

12.
A feeding trial was conducted to investigate the complete substitution of either fish oil (FO) or squid liver oil (SLO) with crude palm oil (CPO), canola oil (CO) sunflower oil (SFO) or linseed oil (LO), as the sole added lipid source in diets fed to triplicate groups of giant freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii (initial weight = 0.42 ± 0.01 g) for 6 weeks. Prawns fed the CO or SLO diets showed significantly higher (P < 0.05) specific growth rate than those fed the FO or CPO diets. The feed conversion ratio of the prawns was significantly better when fed the CO diet, compared with the FO, CPO, SFO and LO diets. The muscle eicosapentaenoic acid content of prawns fed the vegetable oil (VO) diets were not significantly different (P > 0.05) from those fed the FO diet, although all VO‐based diets led to a significantly lower docosahexaenoic acid content compared with prawns fed the FO or SLO diet. The whole‐body total carotenoid content was significantly lower for prawns fed the SLO diet compared with prawns on the CO or CPO diets. The successful use of VO instead of marine‐based oils in prawn diets will likely reduce feeding costs associated with M. rosenbergii aquaculture.  相似文献   

13.
As a marine carnivore exhibiting exceptionally high growth rates, cobia are considered a species for which fish oil (FO) replacement may be difficult. However, partial, if not complete, FO replacement is necessary to ensure sustainability. We evaluated the effects of graded substitution of dietary FO with soybean oil (SO) in cobia culture. Feeds contained FO (100% FO), SO (0% FO) or blends of the two (67% FO, 33% FO) as the supplemental lipid source. Production performance was largely unaffected by partial replacement of FO with SO: feed intake and final weight were reduced only in the 0% FO dietary treatment. Fillet total lipid fatty acid (FA) composition differed among the dietary treatments, closely approximating dietary FA profile. As increasing amounts of FO were replaced, SO‐associated FA became enriched within the fillet lipid at the expense of FO‐associated FA. Fillet lipid classes were associated with a particular FA signature, regardless of dietary FA profile. SO can replace a substantial amount of dietary FO; however, juvenile cobia appear to exhibit a nominal requirement for intact long‐chain polyunsaturated FA. Therefore, aggressive FO replacement may result in essential fatty acid deficiencies unless the feeds can be amended with alternative sources of these essential nutrients.  相似文献   

14.
An 84‐day growth trial was designed to investigate effects of dietary replacements fish oil with pork lard (PL) or rapeseed oil (RO) on growth and quality of gibel carp (Carassius auratus gibelio var. CAS III) (initial body weight: 158.2 ± 0.2 g), and responses of the fish refed fish oil (FO) diet. Three isonitrogenous (crude protein: 30%) and isolipid (crude lipid: 10%) diets were formulated containing 7.73% FO, PL or RO. Five experimental treatments including FO group (FO), PL group (PL), RO group (RO), group fed PL for 42 days and refed FO for 42 days (PL+rFO), RO and refed FO group (RO+rFO) was tested. At the end of first 42 days, the fish fed PL and RO had higher mortality than that of the control (P > 0.05). At the end of whole experiment, fish fed PL and RO showed higher plasma cortisol than FO fish (P < 0.05). RO+rFO fish showed higher lysozyme activity than RO fish (P < 0.05). Fish growth and feed utilization, composition of whole body and muscle, free amino acids, texture, off‐flavour substances or sensory attributes were not affected by dietary treatments (P > 0.05). PL and RO diet decreased muscle EPA, DHA and n‐3/n‐6 ratio (P < 0.05), while FO‐refeeding had recovery effect. It can be concluded that the replacement of FO by PL and RO does not affect the growth, feed utilization or fish tasting quality in gibel carp. Fish muscle fatty acids modified by dietary PL and RO can be recovered by refeeding with FO diet.  相似文献   

15.
In this study, fish oil (FO) was replaced with canola oil (CO) in juvenile yellowtail diets to establish the optimal replacement levels that ensure adequate feed quality for aquaculture. Juvenile yellowtails (initial body weight: 104.7 g) were fed one of four diets for 10 weeks: 100% FO (FO group) or FO replacement with 25%, 50% or 100% CO (CO25, CO50 and CO100 groups respectively). Body weight, specific growth rate and feed efficiency were significantly affected by the replacement of FO with CO. The final body weight of the CO100 group was significantly lower than that of the FO (control) and CO50 groups. Furthermore, the CO50 group showed significantly higher feed efficiency than the FO group during the first 4 weeks (long photoperiod and high water temperature conditions). Increasing dietary CO increased serum glucose and triglyceride concentrations in a dose‐dependent manner. Regarding the proximate composition of fillet and liver, only crude protein in fillet was affected by the replacement of FO with CO. Fatty acid compositions of fillet and liver were correlated to the amount of CO in each diet. The activities of the metabolic enzymes phosphofructokinase and alanine aminotransferase were lowest in the CO25 and CO50 groups respectively. Thus, FO replacement with CO affected growth performance, serum components, fatty acid composition and the activity of metabolic enzymes. Overall, results obtained in the present study suggest that partial replacement (50%) of FO with CO is effective and might increase juvenile yellowtail growth under long photoperiod and/or high water temperature conditions.  相似文献   

16.
Increased use of plant oils with different origins and quality in fish feed needs to be approached from a food safety and fish welfare point of view. Plant oils contain a number of bioactive minor lipid compounds that may affect the fish’s metabolism and taste perception. This study focuses on the effect of replacing fish oil (FO) with different levels of cold‐pressed rapeseed oil (RO) on the lipid composition in muscle and liver as well as on the preference by the fish. Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were fed diets with a FO : RO ratio of 100 : 0, 75 : 25, 50 : 50 and 25 : 75 until twofold weight increase. In self‐selecting feed trials of single rainbow trout, fish preferred the diet composed of only FO compared with the diets with RO but did not discriminate between different levels of RO. Plant sterols and their metabolites were found in liver of the fish fed RO diets, suggesting an effect on the sterol metabolism different from fish fed a 100% FO diet. The largest effects were seen in the fatty acid composition of the edible tissue of the fish with a decrease in 22:6n‐3 and 20:5n‐3 and an increase in 18:2n‐6 and 18:1n‐9.  相似文献   

17.
A 60‐day feeding study with rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, was conducted to determine the effects of replacement of fish oil (FO) by unrefined peanut oil (PO) on growth performance, feed utilization, body composition, fatty acid composition and serum biochemical and haematological parameters. Rainbow trouts (51.60 ± 0.75 g) were fed five experimental diets formulated by replacing dietary FO with PO at levels of level 0 (PO0), 1/4 (PO25), 1/2 (PO50), 3/4 (PO75) and 4/4 (PO100), respectively. As a result, the best growth performance was observed in fish fed with PO0 and PO50 diet. No significant differences were detected among the groups in terms of body compositions. Fatty acid profiles of the fish fillets reflected the fatty acid profiles of the feeds that the fishes were fed with. In this study, the haematological parameters detected that there were no significant differences compared to the control group, whereas the serum biochemical parameters generally worsened as the ratio of peanut oil in the ration exceeded half of fish oil. As a conclusion, the results of the study suggested that the unrefined peanut oil could be used as a replacer of fish oil in diets for rainbow trout.  相似文献   

18.
This study investigated the effect of two lipid sources on reproduction performance and growth in pearl gourami. For this purpose, 180 fish (3.32 ± 0.25 g) were fed with three isoenergetic (19.80) and isonitrogenous diets (480 g/kg protein) including FO (80 g/kg fish oil), FS (40 g/kg fish oil and 40 g/kg soybean oil) and SO (80 g/kg soybean oil) for 10 weeks before maturation. At the end of the trial, there was no significant difference in weight gain, feed conversation ratio and body composition between fish fed FO and FS diets. Individuals fed dietary FO had significantly higher levels of n‐3 long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the muscle (130.5 g/kg lipid) and ovary (140.4 g/kg lipid) as compared with those fed SO diet (64.5, 103.6 g/kg, respectively) (p < .05). Feeding pearl gourami with FO and FS diets enhanced regarding absolute fecundity, relative fecundity, the fertilization rate, larvae total length and survival at 3 day posthatch (p < .05). Also, 17 beta‐estradiol in plasma of fish fed dietary FO (6.2 ng/L) was higher than those fed SO diet (1.7 ng/L) (p < .05). In conclusion, we suggest FS diet for broodstock nutrition of pearl gourami as a model for asynchronous multi‐batch spawning fish.  相似文献   

19.
The optimum water temperature required for the normal growth of Nile tilapia is 25–30°C. In this study, tilapia was reared under suboptimal temperature (21.50 ± 1.50°C) and fed four diets with fish oil (FO), corn oil (CO), sunflower oil (SFO) and linseed oil (LnO) for 8 weeks. The results revealed improved final weight, average daily gain and intestinal amylase activity in the LnO group compared to FO and SFO groups (p < .05). The feed intake was increased significantly in FO and LnO groups compared to CO and SFO groups, while the feed conversion ratio was increased in the FO group (p < .05). The CO, SFO and LnO diets resulted in higher carcass lipids than fish fed FO, while CO decreased the ash content (p < .05). The growth hormone was significantly lowered by LnO, followed by SFO, while CO improved the serum alkaline phosphatase activity (p < .05). Glutathione peroxidase enhanced in fish fed SFO, while the lowest activities were recorded in fish fed FO (p < .05). Total superoxide dismutase was significantly elevated by CO and LnO when compared with fish fed FO and SFO (p < .05). Substituting FO with vegetable oils had normal intestinal and liver histological appearance. It could be concluded that substituting FO with either CO or LnO for Nile tilapia could maintain the normal growth performance and feed utilization with enhanced antioxidant capacity under suboptimal temperature.  相似文献   

20.
An 8‐week experiment on fingerling black carp Mylopharyngodon piceus was conducted to evaluate the effects of dietary fish oil (FO) supplement on growth, fatty acid composition and non‐specific immunity responses. Five triplicate fingerling groups (initial weight = 2.72 ± 0.35 g) were fed isoenergetic and isonitrogenous diets in which the dietary FO was replaced with rapeseed oil (RO) in graded increments of 25% (0–100%). No significant effects were observed on specific growth rates, survival rates and feed conversion ratios, but there were significant differences in whole body moisture and liver lipid contents (P < 0.05), and the 100% RO replacement diet significantly enhanced hepatosomatic indexes compared to control group (P < 0.05). Other approximate whole body constituents, viscerasomatic ratios and condition factors were not influenced by dietary oil treatments. Fatty acid composition of muscle and liver was influenced by dietary fatty acid input, α‐linoleic acid and γ‐linolenic acid were significantly increased with increasing RO, but eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid and the n‐3/n‐6 ratio were significantly reduced (P < 0.05). Alternative complement pathway, lysozyme and superoxide dismutase activities were not significantly influenced. These results indicate that black carp fed diets with FO supplement had similar growth and non‐specific immunity to the fish fed diet with RO.  相似文献   

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