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1.
Abstract. This study examines the sequential pattern of bacterial colonization and the sequential development of branchial lesions during typical outbreaks of bacterial gill disease (BGD) among four groups of commercially reared rainbow trout fingerlings, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Richardson). During a 5-month monitoring regime, prior to the onset of natural outbreaks of BGD, gill morphology of examined fish remained unaltered. Bacterial colonization of the gills was immediately preceded by several gill changes which were widely present in fish from all groups under study. These changes, which were detectable at the ultrastructural level only, included cytoplasmic blistering and degeneration of the microridges of the superficial filament epithelium, in addition to slight topographical irregularity of the filament tips suggestive of mild hyperplasia. Bacterial colonization began at these altered filament tips before spreading to more proximal regions of the filament and adjacent lamellar surfaces. Explosive increases in proportional morbidity and mortality coincided with the development of the following gill lesions: extensive bacterial colonization of lamellar surfaces, lamellar epithelial hydropic degeneration and necrosis, and lamellar oedema. In contrast, gill lesions such as lamellar fusion, epithelial hyperplasia and various metaplastic responses were detected later either as subacute (3–5 days) or chronic (7–14 days) changes. The role of epithelial necrosis as an important event during BGD is discussed as a possible mechanism leading to the development of sub-acute and chronic gill lesions.  相似文献   

2.
Abstract. The range of branchial lesions associated with bacterial gill disease (BGD) in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Richardson), was investigated through the ultrastructural examination of 23 separate outbreaks of the disease condition within commercially reared stocks. Diseased branchial tissues had a large and diffusely distributed monomorphic population of filamentous bacteria which were strictly epicellular. Although bacterial colonization was restricted to the branchial cavity, it was neither site nor cell specific: epithelial and chloride cells of the lamellae, filaments and lining tissues of the branchial cavity were all uniformly affected. The bacteria possessed an extensive glycocalyx which appeared to facilitate adhesion to the apices of the microridged sub-unit modifications of the cell surface. Sites of colonization were accompanied by a diffuse pattern of cellular degeneration and necrosis that was generally restricted to the outer layers of epithelium. The polarity and nature of these changes suggest that the mechanism of interaction between the bacteria and host cells includes progressive hydropic change as a sequel to primary membrane damage and consequent increased cell permeability. These cellular changes were accompanied by the range of stereotypical responses of the gill to damage frequently reported for BGD including lamellar fusion, epithelial hyperplasia, and squamous and mucous cell metaplasia, in addition to lamellar spongiosis.  相似文献   

3.
Previous work in our laboratory defined a method of inducing laboratory‐based amoebic gill disease (AGD) in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. Gills of AGD‐affected fish were scraped and the debris placed into fish‐holding systems, eliciting AGD in naïve Atlantic salmon. While this method is consistently successful in inducing AGD, variability in the kinetics and severity of infections has been observed. It is believed that the infections are influenced by inherently variable viability of post‐harvest amoeba trophozoites. Here, a new method of experimental induction of AGD is presented that redefines the infection model including the minimum infective dose. Amoebae were partially purified from the gills of AGD‐affected Atlantic salmon. Trophozoites were characterized by light microscopy and immunocytochemistry and designated Neoparamoeba sp., possibly Neoparamoeba pemaquidensis. Cells were placed into experimental infection systems ranging in concentration from 0 to 500 cells L?1. AGD was detected by gross and histological examination in fish held in all systems inoculated with amoebae. The number of gross and histological AGD lesions per gill was proportional to the inoculating concentration of amoebae indicating that the severity of disease is a function of amoeba density in the water column. The implications of these observations are discussed in the context of the existing AGD literature base as well as Atlantic salmon farming in south‐eastern Tasmania.  相似文献   

4.
16S ribosomal RNA gene analysis was used to assess the bacterial community associated with Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., gills which were either affected by amoebic gill disease (AGD) or were AGD-negative, in order to determine the role that bacteria may play in the development of AGD. AGD-positive specimens were either infected in the laboratory with Neoparamoeba pemaquidensis, the causative agent of AGD, or were obtained from commercial salmon cages. Samples from laboratory fish maintained in sea water possessed a marine-type community while field samples which had been treated by a series of freshwater baths possessed a more diverse community which included variable proportions of different bacterial ecotypes, including groups typically associated with soil, skin surfaces and faeces. Samples from fish infected with AGD in the laboratory and a sample from one of two salmon cage fish specimens were dominated by a phylotype belonging to the strictly marine bacterial genus Psychroserpens (family Flavobacteriaceae, phylum Bacteroidetes). The phylotype was not detected in any of the AGD-negative samples or in one of two AGD-positive samples obtained from fish subjected to temporary freshwater immersion. The possibility of certain Psychroserpens species as potential opportunistic pathogens associated with salmonid AGD is proposed.  相似文献   

5.
Rainbow trout were experimentally infected with the causative agent of bacterial gill disease (BGD) (Flavobacterium branchiophilum) via bath challenge. All fish were cannulated with dorsal aortic catheters, had nasogastric tubes sutured in place for feeding, and were maintained individually, in plexiglass boxes with a flow-through water system. Fish were either fed, or unfed during the trial. Acute changes in blood gas, serum biochemistry and clinical parameters were monitored. By 24h post-challenge, BGD-infected trout that had been fed had significant hypoxemia, hypercapnia, increased blood ammonia, hypoosmolality, hyponatremia, hypochloremia, and increased cough and respiratory rates when compared to control levels. Unfed BGD-infected trout had similar, but less severe blood gas and clinical changes, and no electrolyte disturbances. The BGD-induced hypoxemia is likely exacerbated by increased oxygen demands brought on by feeding. It is not known what association feeding has with the development of low serum ion levels in BGD-infected trout. This is the first study to report the use of fed fish, as opposed to unfed or starved trout, in obtaining blood chemistry values from indisturbed and cannulated animals.  相似文献   

6.
Amoebic gill disease (AGD) of Atlantic salmon is treated commercially by bathing affected fish in freshwater. Recently, the efficacy of freshwater bathing has been questioned, and the aim of this study was to examine the potential for improving bathing efficacy using additives to the freshwater bath. AGD‐affected Atlantic salmon were bathed in 350 L tanks containing oxygenated freshwater to which chlorine dioxide (0–50 mg L?1), chloramine‐T (0–50 mg L?1) or hydrogen peroxide (0–100 μL L?1) was added. Before and following a 3‐h exposure to the freshwater and chemical additive, the gills were removed from a sub‐sample of fish and the number of live amoebae on the gills were counted and smears made for confirmation of the presence of Neoparamoeba pemaquidensis, the causative agent of AGD. Following a further 3‐h exposure, a sub‐sample of fish was bled from the caudal vein and the gills were removed for histological examination. Chlorine dioxide and chloramine‐T at 25–50 and 10–50 mg L?1, respectively, reduced the number of amoebae on the gills by approximately 50% compared with pre‐exposure numbers. The results from hydrogen peroxide treatment were equivocal and the toxicity of hydrogen peroxide was high. The toxicity of chlorine dioxide varied with freshwater hardness and/or suspended solid load, whereas chloramine‐T toxicity was low, with mortalities attributable only to elevated temperatures at the highest concentration tested. In conclusion, chlorine dioxide and chloramine‐T show promise as potential freshwater additives for the improved removal of N. pemaquidensis and possibly, other amoebae from the gills of commercially farmed Atlantic salmon.  相似文献   

7.
Atlantic salmon were exposed to amoebic gill disease (AGD) immediately following their acclimatization to sea water (group 1), or following a 2 week period of maintenance in sea water (group 2). Three fish from each group were sampled on days 0, 1, 2, 4, 7, 14 and 28 post-infection. Characteristic gill lesions began to occur between days 2 and 4, and dramatically increased by day 7. The number of gill lesions on fish from group 2 was significantly higher than on fish from group 1 on days 7 and 14 ( P <0.001), but the two groups did not differ in any other parameter. Histologically, Paramoeba sp., the aetiological agent of AGD, could be seen on the gills of fish as soon as 1 day post-exposure, attached to healthy-appearing gills. Gill pathology in the form of hyperplasia and lamellar fusion followed shortly. AGD infection was accompanied by a significant increase in the number of gill mucous cells ( P =0.002). Different methods for the diagnosis of AGD are discussed.  相似文献   

8.
Gill diseases cause considerable losses in Norwegian salmon farming. In 2015, we characterized salmon gill poxvirus (SGPV) and associated gill disease. Using newly developed diagnostic tools, we show here that SGPV infection is more widely distributed than previously assumed. We present seven cases of complex gill disease in Atlantic salmon farmed in seawater and freshwater from different parts of Norway. Apoptosis, the hallmark of acute SGPV infection, was not easily observed in these cases, and qPCR analysis was critical for identification of the presence of SGPV. Several other agents including Costia‐like parasites, gill amoebas, Saprolegnia spp. and bacteria were observed. The studied populations experienced significant mortalities, which increased to extreme levels when severe SGPV infections coincided with smoltification. SGPV infection appears to affect the smoltification process directly by affecting the gills and chloride cells in particular. SGPV may be considered a primary pathogen as it was often found prior to identification of complex gill disease. It is hypothesized that SGPV‐induced gill damage may impair innate immunity and allow invasion of secondary invaders. The distinct possibility that SGPV has been widely overlooked as a primary pathogen calls for extended use of SGPV qPCR in Atlantic salmon gill health management.  相似文献   

9.
Amoebic gill disease (AGD) is a pathogenic disease in salmonids caused by Neoparamoeba perurans. Treatment of AGD infection has been through freshwater bathing of the fish. However, as the availability of fresh water is often limited, hydrogen peroxide has been introduced as an alternative treatment. This study investigated the effect of hydrogen peroxide as treatment for AGD‐infected salmon (Salmo salar L.,) at different seawater temperatures and hydrogen peroxide dosages. In total, 600 fish were challenged with N. perurans and the severity of the AGD infection was measured using a gill score scale. After challenge and disease development, the fish were distributed into 12 tanks. The treatment was performed at different seawater temperatures (8°C, 12°C, 17°C) using different hydrogen peroxide doses. Each temperature included an untreated control group. Linear models were used to analyse gill score. A significant effect of treatment was found (?0.68 ± 0.05) regardless of dose and temperature, suggesting that hydrogen peroxide was effective in treating AGD. When the model included dose, a negative linear relationship between dose and gill score was found. The study proved that treatment of AGD with hydrogen peroxide was successful, as gills partially recovered following treatment and further disease development was delayed.  相似文献   

10.
Fish in a population of Pagothenia borchgrevinki in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica, are affected by a gill disease (X-cell disease) which causes tissue hyperplasia that results in a decreased gill surface area and an increased water/blood diffusion distance. P. borchgrevinki acquires 95% of its oxygen via the gills, but damage to the gills by X-cell disease did not affect this function. There was no compensatory shift to cutaneous respiration. X-cell disease reduced the ability for oxygen uptake at low ambient PO 2 and the decreased uptake was related to the extent of the disease. O 2 max was greatly reduced in X-cell affected fish and substantially reduced their aerobic potential. This effect may impair the ability of diseased fish to catch prey and avoid predators.  相似文献   

11.
This study surveyed conditions in the gills of wild marine fish in Tasmania to determine potential interactions between wild and cultured fish. Wild marine fish of 12 species were captured from three Atlantic salmon farm sites and three reference sites around Tasmania. The survey concentrated on three species, red cod, Pseudophycis bachus, sand flathead, Platycephalus bassensis, and jack mackerel, Trachurus declivus. Seventy-six per cent of salmon pens contained wild fish species. The number of species found in a pen ranged from one to nine and the number of individuals ranged from one to 23. Trichodinids were prevalent and occurred on seven of the 13 species examined. Trichodina occurred on the gills of all but one specimen of red cod. Monogenean gill flukes were observed on all three major species sampled and were abundant on sand flathead. Other parasites and conditions observed in the survey included metacercariae of digenean trematodes, epitheliocystis and cysts of unknown origin. Infestations of trichodinids on red cod and monogenean gill flukes on sand flathead were significantly more intense at farm sites than at reference sites. Atlantic salmon sampled at the same time from the farms were only affected by amoebic gill disease and isopods.  相似文献   

12.
Amoebic gill disease (AGD) is a significant disease of Atlantic salmon farmed in South East Tasmania. The commercial treatment for the disease is a freshwater bath for up to 4 h. Previous studies have shown that the chemical composition of the freshwater, in particular total water hardness, affects the efficacy of the treatment. The aim of this study was to determine if other water chemistry parameters, such as dissolved organic carbon (DOC), interact with total water hardness to affect treatment success. Firstly, the relative survival of isolated gill amoebae incubated for up to 3 h with hard or soft water (346.0 and 34.6 mg L?1 CaCO3 respectively) with low or high concentrations of humic or tannic acid (5 and 50 mg L?1 respectively) was determined. Secondly, fish with AGD were bathed for 2.5 h in hard or soft water (249.3 and 35.3 mg L?1 CaCO3) containing either 5 or 20 mg L?1 humic acid. The number of viable amoebae surviving on the gills and number of gill lesions were determined. It was found that the concentration of DOC used in this study that represents the levels commonly found around SE Tasmania is unlikely to have any commercial significance in the reduction in amoebae on the gills of Atlantic salmon. However, this study provided further support that freshwater selected for bathing AGD‐affected salmonids should be chosen primarily on its total water hardness.  相似文献   

13.
Gill diseases are a complex and multifactorial challenge for marine farmed Atlantic salmon. Co‐infections with putative pathogens are common on farms; however, there is a lack of knowledge in relation to the potential effect co‐infections may have on pathology. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence and potential effects of Neoparamoeba perurans, Desmozoon lepeophtherii, Candidatus Branchiomonas cysticola, Tenacibaculum maritimum and salmon gill poxvirus (SGPV) during a longitudinal study on a marine Atlantic salmon farm. Real‐time PCR was used to determine the presence and sequential infection patterns of these pathogens on gill samples collected from stocking until harvest. A number of multilevel models were used to determine the effect of these putative pathogens on gill health (measured as gill histopathology score), while adjusting for the effect of water temperature and time since the last freshwater treatment. Results indicate that between 12 and 16 weeks post‐seawater transfer (wpst), colonization of the gills by all pathogens had commenced and by week 16 of marine production each of the pathogens had been detected. D. lepeophtherii and Candidatus B. cysticola were by far the most prevalent of the potential pathogens detected during this study. Detections of T. maritimum were found to be significantly correlated with temperature showing distinct seasonality. Salmon gill poxvirus was found to be highly sporadic and detected in the first sampling point, suggesting a carryover from the freshwater stage of production. Finally, the model results indicated no clear effect between any of the pathogens. Additionally, the models showed that the only variable which had a consistent effect on the histology score was N. perurans.  相似文献   

14.
通过光镜、扫描电镜及透射电镜技术,研究了怒江裂腹鱼(Schizothorax nukiangensis)鳃的组织结构和超微结构。结果表明,怒江裂腹鱼鳃基本结构与其他硬骨鱼相似,均由鳃耙、鳃弓、鳃丝以及鳃小片构成,且各部分具有不同的组织结构和细胞类型。扁平上皮细胞覆盖于整个鳃表面,其表面的纹路主要有3种类型,在鳃上不同的部位具有不同的结构和功能。线粒体密集细胞主要分布于鳃小片基部,仅有一种细胞类型,顶端膜内凹呈浅滩型,细胞内具有大量圆形的线粒体。怒江裂腹鱼鳃内扁平上皮细胞和线粒体密集细胞的形态结构与其在急流中游泳和摄食活动等生活习性相适应。本研究结果丰富了怒江裂腹鱼的基础生物学资料,并为阐明鱼类鳃的结构特征与其生活习性之间的关系提供参考。  相似文献   

15.
Amoebic gill disease (AGD) caused by the ectoparasite Paramoeba perurans affects several cultured marine fish species worldwide. In this study, the morphology and ultrastructure of P. perurans in vitro and in vivo was investigated using scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM and TEM, respectively). Amoebae cultures contained several different morphologies ranging from a distinct rounded cell structure and polymorphic cells with pseudopodia of different lengths and shapes. SEM studies of the gills of AGD‐affected Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., revealed the presence of enlarged swellings in affected gill filaments and fusion of adjacent lamellae. Spherical amoebae appeared to embed within the epithelium, and subsequently leave hemispherical indentations with visible fenestrations in the basolateral surface following their departure. These fenestrated structures corresponded to the presence of pseudopodia which could be seen by TEM to penetrate into the epithelium. The membrane–membrane interface contained an amorphous and slightly fibrous matrix. This suggests the existence of cellular glycocalyces and a role for extracellular products in mediating pathological changes in amoebic gill disease.  相似文献   

16.
Two trials were conducted to assess the effects of repeated prophylactic formalin treatments on the gill structure of salmonids. In trial 1, which involved Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., approaching smoltification in a commercial facility, fish were treated with either 167 or 250 mg l-1 formalin for 90 min every 2 weeks for 12 weeks. Formalin-treated salmon had slight, but not significant, increases in the frequency of lamellar fusion, numbers of lamellar mucous cells, and numbers of an endemic gill ciliate, Trichophyra piscium, after 6 and 12 weeks of treatment. In trial 2, which involved juvenile rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum), fish were treated with 200 mg l-1 formalin for 60 min twice weekly for 12 weeks. Significant effects were limited to an increase in the numbers of mucous cells present on gill lamellae. In both trials, there was no evidence of lamellar oedema or necrosis of lamellar epithelial cells.  相似文献   

17.
Amoebic gill disease (AGD) in farmed Atlantic salmon is caused by the amoeba Paramoeba perurans. The recent establishment of in vitro culture techniques for P. perurans has provided a valuable tool for studying the parasite in detail. In this study, flow cytometry was used to generate clonal cultures from single‐sorted amoeba, and these were used to successfully establish AGD in experimental Atlantic salmon. The clonal cultures displayed differences in virulence, based on gill scores. The P. perurans load on gills, determined by qPCR analysis, showed a positive relationship with gill score, and with clonal virulence, indicating that the ability of amoebae to proliferate and/or remain attached on gills may play a role in virulence. Gill scores based on gross signs and histopathological analysis were in agreement. No association between level of gill score and specific gill arch was observed. It was found that for fish with lower gill scores based on histopathological examination, gross examination and qPCR analysis of gills from the same fish were less successful in detecting lesions and amoebae, respectively.  相似文献   

18.
本研究运用光学显微镜、扫描电镜以及透射电镜技术研究了南海北部黄鳍金枪鱼(Thunnus albacares)幼鱼和成鱼鳃的显微组织结构、鳃表面超微结构和鳃小片内部超微结构特点。结果表明, 黄鳍金枪鱼鳃丝顶端弯曲, 鳃弓、 鳃丝和鳃耙表面具有不同类型的细胞。表面超微结构研究显示黄鳍金枪鱼的鳃具有高的片层密度、独特的斜向血流模式以及鳃的融合特性, 幼鱼和成鱼鳃结构之间存在显著不同。鳃小片内部超微结构研究显示鳃扁平上皮细胞覆盖于鳃丝和鳃小片表面, 顶端存在微绒毛或微脊结构, 相对幼鱼, 成鱼具有高的细胞质密度; 离子细胞主要分布于鳃小片以及鳃小片基部, 幼鱼离子细胞顶端开口为微绒毛, 成鱼为小坑状。本研究阐明了黄鳍金枪鱼幼鱼和成鱼鳃的组织结构, 丰富了黄鳍金枪鱼鳃的基础生物学资料, 为研究高速游泳鱼类鳃的形态特征与其高速游泳习性之间的关系提供了参考。  相似文献   

19.
Gill diseases cause serious losses in farming of Atlantic salmon and the number of agents involved increases. Salmon gill poxvirus (SGPV) and the gill disease in causes where SGPV apparently was the only disease‐causing agent were initially characterized. Recently, it was further shown that SGPV can be a common denominator in widely different multifactorial gill diseases. Here, we present the challenge of diagnosing gill disease with SGPV in salmon fry of 0,3–5 grams. Apoptosis of gill lamellar epithelial cells and hemophagocytosis was also observed in fry similar to findings in smolts and grow‐out fish. Using our newly developed immunohistochemistry method, we further demonstrate that some of the apoptotic epithelial cells covering the oral cavity were positive for SGPV. Thus, SGPV is not restricted to respiratory epithelium alone and may infect the fish at very early life stages. Furthermore, as the cases examined here are from Norway, Faroe Island and Scotland, we show that SGPV is more widespread than previously reported.  相似文献   

20.
Atlantic salmon with amoebic gill disease (AGD) were treated with chloramine‐T to compare its effectiveness with that of freshwater bathing. In 250‐L tank trials, treatment of seawater with chloramine‐T reduced amoeba density on the gills to levels significantly lower than when treated with seawater alone. There was no further change in amoeba levels in fish bathed for 3 or 6 h compared with 1 h of treatment. Plasma lactate levels in fish bathed in chloramine‐T for 6 h showed no differences across treatments. In 1000‐L tank trials using freshwater alone or seawater with chloramine‐T, significant reductions in amoeba density occurred compared with pre‐bath levels. Histological analysis of gill tissue revealed AGD lesion levels to increase, then to return to pre‐bath levels within 1 week for freshwater‐treated fish, while chloramine‐T‐ and seawater‐treated fish had higher levels of AGD lesions from 2 weeks post bathing. Immunodot‐blot data indicated an initial significant increase in prevalence of lesions in seawater and chloramine‐T‐treated fish, which declined to levels significantly lower than pre‐bath levels by 3 weeks post bathing, compared with the freshwater‐treated fish, which had significantly lower levels than controls by 2 weeks post bathing. At reducing amoeba density, it is apparent that bathing AGD‐affected Atlantic salmon in seawater with chloramine‐T proved at least as effective as freshwater.  相似文献   

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