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1.
Microparticles (< 40 μm diameter) composed of 600 mg g−1 tripalmitin/400 mg g−1 fish oil were used to encapsulate the low-molecular-weight (mol. wt 460) antibiotic oxytetracycline in the form of either oxytetracycline hydrochloride (OTC.HCl) or oxytetracycline hemicalcium salt (OTC.HEM). Dry, finely ground particles of core material were encapsulated in spray beads. Dissolved core material was encapsulated in lipid-walled microcapsules.
Oxytetracycline (OTC) was most efficiently delivered (≈ 46.5 mg g−1 lipid after 24 h suspension in seawater) as a hemicalcium salt in spray beads. Lipid-walled microcapsules were most efficient for delivering OTC (≈ 8.7 mg g−1 lipid) as OTC.HCl dissolved in 0.2  M HCl at a concentration of 300 mg mL−1.
Spray beads containing OTC.HEM were very stable over 1 month in storage. Lipid-walled microcapsules containing aqueous OTC.HCl lost ≈ 30% of their core material during storage. Freeze-drying of both microparticle types did not improve storage of spray beads, but showed promise for reducing leakage from lipid-walled microcapsules during storage and delivery to suspension feeders.  相似文献   

2.
Two trials were conducted to determine the effects of dietary enrichments with the microalga Parietochloris incisa , rich in arachidonic acid (ARA), on stress resistance in guppies Poecilia reticulata . The microalga was added to commercial diets as a neutral lipid (NL) extract and its fractions or as broken cells. Experimental diets were applied for a period of 14 days. In trial 1, commercial diets were supplemented with NL (containing 25 mg ARA and 0.11 mg β-carotene g−1 feed), its triacylglycerol (TAG) fraction (containing 25 mg ARA g−1 feed and no β-carotene) and the β-carotene fraction (containing 0.11 mg carotenoid g−1 feed and minute amounts of ARA). Neutral lipid-fed fish demonstrated the highest resistance ( P <0.05) to osmotic stress (32-ppt NaCl), followed by fish fed with diets supplemented with TAG and β-carotene alone, which were more resistant than control ( P <0.05). In trial 2, fish fed diets supplemented with higher levels of broken alga (26.1 mg ARA g−1 feed) were more resistant ( P <0.05) to stress as compared with fish fed lower ARA (16.3 mg g g−1) or an unsupplemented control diet. We suggest a dietary supplementation with broken P. incisa cells to enhance stress resistance in guppies before a stressful event.  相似文献   

3.
This study investigated the feasibility of using clove oil, 2-phenoxyethanol, or Propiscin as an alternative to tricaine methane sulphonate (MS 222) as a fish anaesthetic, particularly in regard to reducing fish stress. The biochemical blood profiles of perch Perca fluviatilis L. anaesthetized with either MS 222 (100 mg L−1), clove oil (33 mg L−1), 2-phenoxyethanol (0.40 mL L−1) or Propiscin (1.0 mL L−1), and a non-anaesthetized control group were compared. Biochemical profiles were determined from blood samples collected before treatment in controls. For each anaesthetic tested, fish were divided into two groups, one sampled immediately after 10-min anaesthesia and a second, sampled 24 h after 10-min anaesthesia. The values determined in the present study suggested that internal organs and tissues of perch were slightly altered by MS 222, clove oil and 2-phenoxyethanol anaesthesia, but not by Propiscin anaesthesia.  相似文献   

4.
Sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax fillet quality was investigated after feeding with four diets (A, B, C or D) containing different levels of dietary vitamin E (139 mg kg–1, 254 mg kg–1, 493 mg kg–1 and 942 mg kg–1, respectively). Six-hundred and eighty fish (mean initial weight 208 g) were equally divided into four 20 m3 tanks and fed for 87 days. Filtered seawater with a temperature ranging from 18.2 to 26.3 °C was supplied continuously. At the end of the experiment, fish were stored at 1 °C for 12 days. At one, three, six, nine and 12 days, 20 fish per group were processed for proximate composition, vitamin E and induced thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARs) analyses. No significant differences in proximate composition were registered between groups. The flesh lipid content ranged from 88.0 g kg–1 (group B) to 96.8 g kg–1 (group A). Vitamin E fillet content was significantly different between groups, reaching levels of 98.0, 150.7, 225.2 and 302.0 μg g–1 lipids for group A, B, C and D, respectively. Induced TBARs values were statistically different only for group A compared with the other groups. No significant variations were registered in relation to preservation time. Because of the positive influence of vitamin E on seafood quality and the correlation between its dietary level and flesh deposition, the α-tocopherol content of the diet should be well above fish minimum requirements.  相似文献   

5.
Six experiments were designed to determine the optimal anaesthetic dosage of tricaine methanesulphonate (TMS) and clove oil that could be used safely on juvenile cobia Rachycentron canadum of two sizes [G1=4.9±0.8 g; G2=13.9±3.1 g]. We documented the stage of anaesthesia and the acute toxicity as 96 h LC50 (lethal concentration 50% population) at various exposure times of the two anaesthetics. At 10 min induction time, the TMS 96 h LC50 was 93.9 mg L−1 in G1 and 97.0 mg L−1 in G2. Compared with clove oil, the 96 h LC50 was 60.0 mg L−1 in G1 and 69.8 mg L−1 in G2. The difference between the two groups (G1, G2) did not influence anaesthesia safety ( P >0.05). Rachycentron canadum achieved stage 3 anaesthesia more rapidly at a lower clove oil concentration level (40 mg L−1, 10 min) than TMS (60 mg L−1, 10 min), but the recovery period of clove oil, was significantly longer. Clove oil was the most effective in reducing the short-term stress induced by routine biometry (20 mg L−1, 10 min) and also by transporting (1 mg L−1, 8 h). Whereas, for long-term exposure, 40 mg L−1 TMS was found to be safe.  相似文献   

6.
An experiment was carried out with Cichlasoma urophthalmus (Günther) juveniles to determine the phosphorus requirement and its interaction with dietary calcium. Twelve isoenergetic and isoproteic diets were prepared using a basal artificial diet containing vitamin-free casein, dextrin, starch, corn oil, fish oil, vitamin mixture and a mineral mixture free of calcium and phosphorus. Calcium and phosphorus levels were determined in the casein. To the basal diets were added different concentrations of phosphorus as potassium monophosphate (0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.5 g kg–1) and calcium as calcium carbonate (0.5, 0.75, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0 and 4.0 g kg–1). These concentrations resulted in varying Ca–P ratios (1:1, 1.33:1, 1.5:1, 1.6:1 and 2.0:1). Calcium and phosphorus concentrations in the water were 84 mg kg–1 and 0.003 mg kg–1, respectively. The diet with 0.5 g kg–1 phosphorus resulted in deficiency signs such as reduced growth, high conversion ratio, high fat content and low bone mineralization. Increased levels of dietary calcium and phosphorus both gave improved growth and mineralization. Mineralization continued to increase with dietary phosphorus levels above that required for maximum growth. The optimum level of phosphorus in the diet was 1.5 g kg–1, the optimum calcium level was 1.8 g kg–1 and the optimum Ca–P ratio was 1.3. Carcass lipid levels were inversely related to dietary phosphorus.  相似文献   

7.
In a 8-week production-scale experiment at a commercial trout farm, the effects of dietary lipid level and phosphorus level on phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) utilization of rainbow trout (initial mean weight 99 g) were assessed. A low-phosphorus, high-lipid experimental diet (457 g protein, 315 g lipid, 9.1 g P  kg–1 dry diet) was compared with a commonly used commercial diet (484 g protein, 173 g lipid, 13.6 g P  kg–1 dry diet). P and N budgets were constructed using data from the production-scale experiment and digestibility data for the two diets. In addition, orthophosphate and ammonia-N waste were measured in effluent over one 24-h period. Relative to the commercial diet, the experimental diet resulted in significantly increased feed efficiency ratio, N retention and P retention, and substantially reduced dissolved, solid and total P waste (g kg–1 dry feed). Although N retention resulting from the experimental diet was higher, this was attributable to higher N (protein) digestibility of the experimental diet. Solid N waste (g kg–1 dry feed) resulting from the experimental diet was substantially lower, but dissolved N waste (g kg–1 dry feed) was not significantly different relative to the commercial diet. Mean effluent orthophosphate production (mg day–1 kg–1 fish) of fish fed the experimental diet was substantially lower than that of fish fed the commercial diet ( P  < 0.05), but effluent ammonia-N production (mg day–1 kg–1 fish) was not significantly affected by dietary treatment.  相似文献   

8.
Six isonitrogenous (350 g kg−1 crude protein) and isoenergetic (17573 kJ kg−1) experimental diets incorporating raw and fermented sesame ( Seasamum indicum ) seed meal at 200, 300, and 400 g kg−1 into a fishmeal based diet were fed to rohu Labeo rohita fingerlings for 60 days and the growth performance and feed utilization efficiency of the fish was studied. The antinutritional factor phytic acid, from raw sesame seed meal, could be reduced below detection limit by fermentation with lactic acid bacteria ( Lactobacillus acidophilus ). Fermentation of the oilseed meal resulted in reduction of the tannin content from 20 to 10 g kg−1. In terms of growth response, feed conversion ratio and protein efficiency ratio, a diet containing 400 g kg−1 fermented sesame seed meal resulted in a significantly ( P  < 0.01) best fish performance. In general, growth and feed utilization efficiencies of fish fed fermented sesame seed meal diets were superior to those fed raw oilseed meal diets. Apparent protein digestibility (APD) values decreased with increasing levels of raw oilseed meal. APD was, however, significantly ( P  < 0.01) higher at all levels of incorporation of fermented sesame seed meal, while diets containing raw oilseed meal resulted in poor protein and lipid digestibility. Carcass protein and lipid contents of fish fed fermented sesame seed meal diets increased with increasing level of incorporation, being highest with 400 g kg−1 fermented oilseed meal-containing diet. The results showed that sesame seed meal may be incorporated in carp diets up to 200 g kg−1 and 400 g kg−1 in raw and treated (fermented) forms respectively.  相似文献   

9.
Two anaesthetics, clove oil and methane sulphonate (MS-222), were examined for their effects on the olfactory nerve response of masu salmon ( Oncorhynchus masou Brevoort) and rainbow trout ( O. mykiss Walbaum). Exposing both species to clove oil for 3 min at concentrations of 50 and 100 mg L−1, or for 10 min at 50 mg L−1, did not significantly reduce their olfactory response. Directly applying clove oil anaesthesia to the olfactory epithelium significantly reduced olfactory response though after 20 min, olfactory response recovered to 70% and 52% of pre-treatment levels in masu salmon and rainbow trout respectively. Compared with the post-anaesthetic recovery of responses after clove oil (50 mg L−1), buffered MS-222 (100 mg L−1) with NaHCO3 (100 mg L−1), and unbuffered MS-222 (100 mg L−1) treatment for 3 min, the response after MS-222 treatment declined gradually and significantly, but not after clove oil and MS-222+NaHCO3 treatments. Clove oil appears to be an effective and relatively safe anaesthetic for salmonids with little long-term impact on their olfactory response, which plays a crucial role in their life history.  相似文献   

10.
This study presents the biochemical contents of Artemia biomass produced in a pond in 'Las Salinas de Hidalgo', State of San Luis Potosí, Mexico. The culture was realized over a period of 1 year in an 80 × 50 × 0.65 m (200 m3) pond. The feed consisted of a mixture of four micro algae. Samples of 1 kg of Artemia biomass (wet basis) were taken monthly and total protein, total lipid, amino acids and fatty acids were assessed. The contents of total protein and lipids showed a similar tendency from July to December (maintained values of about 300 mg g−1 for protein and 90 mg g−1 for lipids). With the exception of methionine and arginine, other seven indispensable amino acids were detected in the monthly samples, having similar values during the period from July to December. The most common fatty acids determined were the C16, C18, C18:1 and C18:3 n 6. Both, C20:4 n 6 and C20:5 n 3, were observed occasionally, but in high quantities. The use of the four micro algae as food for the Artemia cultured extensively, improved the biochemical composition and allows using this crustacean as feed for several species of aquatic organisms used for ornamental or human consumption.  相似文献   

11.
The efficacy of clove oil as an anaesthetic and at producing a physiological response (plasma cortisol and glucose) was evaluated in the kelp grouper, Epinephelus bruneus . To acquire complete anaesthesia in less than 3 min and recovery in <10 min, three doses of clove oil were tested at 18, 22 and 26 °C. Although higher anaesthetic doses resulted in shorter induction times and longer recovery times, and a lower temperature resulted in longer anaesthesia induction and slower recovery, we found the optimal dose and administering temperature of clove oil to be 250–300 mg L−1 at water temperature of 18 °C, 150–200 mg L−1 at water temperature of 22 °C and 50–100 mg L−1 at water temperature of 26 °C respectively. Following the administration of 150 mg L−1 of clove oil at 22 °C, the plasma cortisol level was highest (4.24 ± 1.571 μg dL−1) after 12 h and the plasma glucose was highest (92.7 ± 9.61 mg dL−1) after 2 h. These results should be useful to the aquaculture industry, where anaesthesia is necessary for a range of activities.  相似文献   

12.
Exogenous steroids alter sex differentiation in fish substantially. In the present study we have evaluated the effects of 17α-methyltestosterone (MT) and oestrogen receptor antagonist Tamoxifen (TA) on gonadal development and skewness of the sex ratio in all-female tench juveniles. In the first two experiments, sexually undifferentiated juveniles were orally treated with three doses of MT and TA (50, 100 and 150 mg kg−1). Both the treatments resulted in a moderate dose-dependent masculinization, with neomale production ranging from 17% (50 mg kg−1) to 26% (150 mg kg−1) for the MT only treatment, and from 0% (50 mg kg−1) to 27% (100 mg kg−1) only for the TA treatment respectively. In the third experiment treatment of sexually differentiated tench females with single steroid treatments or combinations of the two resulted in populations composed of females and intersex individuals. The significantly highest occurrence of intersex individuals (45.5%) was found in the group subjected to combine treatment of MT+TA (150+200 mg kg−1). No masculinization effect of the single or the combined treatment occurred. It can be concluded that oral treatment with MT or TA only slightly modifies the normal process of sex differentiation in gynogenetic tench juvenile, but treatment with the above-mentioned combinations has a highly significant potential to skew the sex ratio in sexually differentiated tench females. However, from an applied point of view, the treatment procedure will need optimization before use at a commercial level.  相似文献   

13.
The antibacterial activity of individual and mixed medicinal plant compounds, azadirachtin (Az), camphor (Ca) and curcumin (Cu), was tested at 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600 and 700 ppm (mg L−1) against fungal fish pathogen, Aphanomyces invadans, in vitro . At the lower concentrations between 100 and 300 ppm, the mixture of the tri-herbal (Az+Ca+Cu) compound yielded a higher ( P >0.05) zone of inhibition (ZI) of 7 mm than the positive control; the maximum ZI values (8–15 mm) were realized between 400 and 700 ppm ( P <0.05). At the lowest minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) the tri-herbal compound (100 ppm) yielded 13 colony-forming units; hence, this dose can be effectively used at the lowest concentration of 100 mg L−1 to ward off the growth of A. invadans in vitro . In Cirrhina mrigala , intramuscular administration (100 μL) of the selected doses of 100, 400 and 700 ppm (mg L−1) significantly enhanced ( P <0.05) the serum lysozyme activity (Ly), production of reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species (RNS or NO) by peripheral blood leucocytes on the 10th, 20th and 30th day. A priori administration of the compound in the fish (100 ppm on 30th day) decreased the percentage mortality when challenged with the pathogen while in the untreated group the mortality increased ( P <0.05). This study indicates that intramuscular administration of the tri-herbal compound Az+Ca+Cu at a concentration of 100 ppm could augment the immune response in C. mrigala against A. invadans .  相似文献   

14.
The use efficiency and feed conversion of extruded and pelletized diets were compared. Eight isoproteic diets (220 g kg−1 digestible protein) were assayed for 90 days in a 2 × 2 × 2 multifactorial design with two carbohydrate levels (400 and 500 g kg−1), two lipids levels (40 and 80 g kg−1) and two diet processing (pelletization and extrusion) with three repetitions. The growth of Piaractus mesopotamicus fed with these diets and the quality control indices of diets were gauged. The density of extruded diets was lower as carbohydrate level was 400 g kg−1 and lipid 40 g kg−1. The interaction carbohydrate and diet processing presented higher leaching value for low carbohydrate level in extruded diet. Fish fed with extruded diets presented the best feed conversion and protein efficiency ratio. When high levels of carbohydrate and lipid are combined, the weight gain is impaired. The interaction between diet processing diet and lipid levels resulted in the best fish performance when pelletized diets with 40 g kg−1 lipid or extruded diets with 80 g kg−1 lipid were considered. The protein efficiency ratio increased with the increment of carbohydrates in the pelletized diets. The fish show low tolerance to lipids and a preference for carbohydrate when the lipid productive values are taken into account.  相似文献   

15.
Juvenile rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum) were fed six low-phosphorus (P) diets supplemented with two different sizes of ground fish bone-meals (fine, 68 μm or less; coarse, 250–425 μm) and a coarse bone-meal diet containing four levels of citric acid (0, 4, 8 or 16 g kg−1 diet) to investigate the effects of pH and bone particle size on P bioavailability. The basal diet provided 3.4 g P   kg−1 and bone-meal increased P contents to 5.4–6.0 g P   kg−1. Coarse bone-meal diets supplemented with 0, 4, 8 or 16 g kg−1 of citric acid had pH values of 6.0, 5.7, 5.4 and 5.0, respectively. Weight gain and whole-body water, protein and lipid contents were not influenced by bone-meal supplementation. Supplementing the basal diet with both coarse and fine bone-meal significantly increased whole-body ash content. Fish fed no bone-meal were hypophosphataemic compared with fish fed with either fine or coarse bone-meals. Phosphorus in fine bone-meal had higher availability than P in coarse bone-meal. Bone-meal supplementation significantly decreased whole-body manganese content from 8.9 μg g−1 in fish fed no bone-meal to 2.3 and 4.5 μg g−1 in fish fed with fine and coarse bone-meals, respectively. The concentration of magnesium increased but zinc concentration was not affected by bone-meal supplements. Citric acid increased whole-body ash content but the influence of citric acid on the body P content was not significant ( P  = 0.07). Dietary acidification by citric acid significantly increased whole-body iron in a linear fashion. The bioavailability of dietary P can be improved by fine grinding the bone in fish meals.  相似文献   

16.
During refrigeration, lipid oxidation is a major factor contributing to post-mortem deterioration of flesh quality. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), especially n -3 PUFA, are present in high concentration in fish tissues, and in oils used in diets, and are readily susceptible to peroxidation. α-Tocopherol (AT) can reduce tissue lipid peroxidation in vivo and post mortem. The effect of increasing the tissue level of AT by dietary supplementation of α-tocopherol acetate (ATA) was therefore investigated. Commercial salmon diets C, M and H, high in lipids, containing 184, 573 and 865 mg ATA kg−1 diet DM (dry matter) were fed to 18 fish per treatment. Dietary AT: PUFA ratios were 2.0, 6.3, and 9.5 mg g−1 for diets C, M and H, respectively. Fish (mean initial live weight 630 g) were slaughtered after 50 and 78 days of feeding. Fillet samples were analysed fresh or after storage at 4 °C for 12 days and –20 °C for 12 months. Lipid oxidation was measured using the thiobarbituric acid test. Colour score, but not carotenoid content, of fillets was significantly higher between 6 and 12 days of fresh storage in fish fed diets M and H compared with those fed diet C. Colour score, carotenoid content and ΑΤ content decreased and the content of lipid oxidation products increased following storage of fillets at –20 °C for up to 12 months, although lipid oxidation was always significantly lower in fish fed diets M and H.  相似文献   

17.
We evaluated the toxicity of commercial injectable erythromycin (Erythro-200) and the injectable drug carrier alone (PEG-400, ethyl alcohol and ethyl acetate) in sub-adult spring chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum). Both compounds were toxic to salmon when administered in high dosages. The 50% lethal dose (LD50) of the erythromycin within its carrier (Erythro-200) at 12 °C was estimated at 429 mg erythromycin kg–1 or 2.145 mL kg–1 when measured by volume. The LD50 of the drug carrier alone was 2.95 mL kg–1 by volume or equivalent to 3.21 g kg–1 of the carrier. We evaluated and scored the histopathology in kidney sections removed from fish 96 h after injection with Erythro-200, the drug carrier alone, or sterile phosphate buffered saline (PBS) that served as a reference control. Kidneys from fish injected with saline had lowest average pathology scores; those injected with the carrier had moderate scores; and the pathology score was highest in tissues from erythromycin-injected fish. In tests at 12 °C, vacuoles were more prominent in proximal and distal tubules of fish injected with higher dosages of 403 and 545 mg erythromycin kg–1 than in tissues from fish injected with 299 mg kg–1.  相似文献   

18.
Ethoxyquin (EQ) has been used as an antioxidant in livestock, aquaculture and pet foods. Animal food safety law has established the upper limit of EQ in animal feed at 150 mg kg−1. However, the risk of EQ at the approved level for aquaculture feed (150 mg kg−1) to fish health is unknown. Here, we examine the effect of EQ on the immunity of tilapia ( Oreochromis niloticus ). EQ concentration in the blood reached 0.16 mg L−1 in fish fed EQ at the approved level. This level of EQ inhibited phagocytic activity of leucocytes in vitro and antibacterial activity of whole blood in vivo . Furthermore, pyknosis in the liver was observed throughout the duration of feeding. However, after 30 days of experimental challenge with feed containing 150 mg kg−1 of EQ, no significant difference was observed in mortality. Although EQ at the approved level in feed causes immunosuppression in fish, the severity of immunosuppression does not lead to a lowering of disease resistance for short feeding periods.  相似文献   

19.
Abstract  – Seasonal pattern of energy content was determined in a population of Arctic char, Salvelinus alpinus (L.), living in an ultraoligotrophic alpine lake (altitude 1100 m) located in central Norway (62°5'N). Specific somatic energy content varied between 4.3 and 6.1 kJ · g−1 in spawners and between 4.8 and 6.6 kJ · g−1 in immatures. Corresponding values for specific somatic lipid energy were 0.5–1.6 kJ · g−1 for spawners and 0.7–2.1 kJ · g−1 for immatures. The temporal pattern in storage energy residuals (deviation from mean storage energy, all sampling periods pooled) indicated that total, protein and lipid energy accumulated in the autumn and early winter. This increase was followed by a winter decrease in somatic energy (January to April). A new increase in total somatic energy and somatic lipid energy occurred during late winter (March/April to June), while the lake was still ice covered and water temperatures ranged between 0.5 and 2.5 °C. The observed seasonal pattern of specific energy storage and lipid deposition demonstrated a considerable potential for energy accumulation in Arctic char at low temperatures. It is discussed whether freshwater lakes at high altitudes or latitudes represent a temperature-stabilised and predictable environment in contrast to the variable temperature experienced in the corresponding terrestrial system.  相似文献   

20.
This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of dietary myo -inositol (MI) on the antioxidant status of juvenile Jian carp ( Cyprinus carpio var. Jian). A total of 1050 Jian carp (22.28±0.07 g) were randomly distributed into seven groups of three replicates each, feeding diets containing graded levels of MI (163.5, 232.7, 384.2, 535.8, 687.3, 838.8 and 990.3 mg kg−1 diet) for 60 days. Results indicated that the malondialdehyde content was the lowest for fish fed diets containing ≥384.2 mg MI kg−1, and the highest for fish fed the MI-unsupplemented basal diet ( P <0.05). The protein carbonyl content was decreased with increasing dietary MI levels up to 535.8 mg kg−1 diet, and no differences were found with a further increase in the MI concentration. The anti-superoxide anion capacity (ASA) and anti-hydroxyl radical capacity (AHR) were increased with increasing MI levels up to 535.8 mg kg−1 diet, and plateaued thereafter. The superoxide dismutase and glutathione- S -transferase activities showed the same tendency with the ASA capacity. Catalase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reducase activities were improved with increasing MI levels up to 838.8, 384.2 and 687.3 mg kg−1 diet, respectively, and remained nearly constant thereafter. These results suggested that MI could inhibit oxygen radical generation, increase enzymatic antioxidant capacity and prevent oxidative damage of carp. Dietary MI requirements for ASA and AHR activities of juvenile Jian carp were 567.94 and 517.22 mg MI kg−1 diet respectively.  相似文献   

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