首页 | 本学科首页   官方微博 | 高级检索  
相似文献
 共查询到20条相似文献，搜索用时 109 毫秒
1.
Brucellosis and tularemia are classical zoonotic diseases transmitted from an animal reservoir to humans. Both, wildlife and domestic animals, contribute to the spreading of these zoonoses. The surveillance of the animal health status is strictly regulated for domestic animals, whereas systematic disease monitoring in wildlife does not exist. The aim of the present study was to provide data on the prevalence of anti‐Brucella, anti‐Francisella and anti‐Yersinia antibodies in wild boars from North‐Eastern Germany to assess public health risks. A total of 763 sera of wild boars from Mecklenburg‐Western Pomerania hunted in 1995/1996 were tested using a commercially available Brucella suis ELISA, an in‐house lipopolysaccharide (LPS)‐based Francisella ELISA, and commercially available Western blot kits for the detection of anti‐Francisella and anti‐Yersinia antibodies. The Yersinia enterocolitica O:9 LPS is able to induce serological cross‐reactions indistinguishable from brucellosis due to a similar immunodominant epitope in the Brucella O‐polysaccharide. The Yersinia Western blot assay was, therefore, based on five recombinant Yersinia outer proteins which have been proved to be specific for the serodiagnosis of yersiniosis. Anti‐Brucella, anti‐Francisella and anti‐Yersinia antibodies were detected in 22.0%, 3.1%, and 62.6% of the wild boars, respectively. The high seroprevalence of tularemia and brucellosis in wild boars indicates that natural foci of these zoonoses are present in wildlife in Germany. However, the impact of transmission of zoonotic pathogens from wildlife to livestock is unknown. Only careful and systematic monitoring will help to prevent the (re)emergence of these zoonotic diseases in domestic animals and consequently human infection.  相似文献   

2.
Wildlife can contribute to environmental contamination with bacterial pathogens and their transfer to the human food chain. Global usage and frequent misuse of antimicrobials contribute to emergence of new antimicrobial resistant (AMR) strains of foodborne pathogens. We conducted a scoping review of published research to identify and characterize the evidence on wildlife's role in transmission of AMR and/or bacterial pathogens to the food chain. An advisory group (AG) of 13 North American experts from diverse disciplines was surveyed to solicit insight in the review scope, priority topics and research characteristics. A pre‐tested search strategy was implemented in seven bibliographic databases (1990 to January 2013). Citations were relevance screened, and key characteristics on priority topics extracted independently by two reviewers. Analysis identified topic areas with solid evidence and main knowledge gaps. North America reported 30% of 866 relevant articles. The prevalence of five targeted bacterial pathogens and/or AMR in any pathogen in wildlife was reported in 582 articles. Transmission risk factors for selected bacteria or AMR in any bacteria were reported in 300. Interventions to control transmission were discussed in 124 articles and formally evaluated in 50. The majority of primary research investigated birds, cervids, rodents, feral pigs, opossums, E. coli (n = 329), Salmonella (n = 293) and Campylobacter (n = 124). An association between wildlife and transmission of bacterial pathogens and/or AMR to the food chain was supported in 122 studies. The scoping review identified a significant body of research on the role of wild birds in the prevalence and transmission of E. coli, Salmonella and Campylobacter. There was little research employing molecular methods contributing to the evidence concerning the importance and direction of transmission of wildlife/pathogen combinations. Given the advancements of these methods, future research should focus in this area to help prioritize future intervention studies and risk mitigation strategies.  相似文献   

3.
The paper reviews the lines of evidence which link the use of antimicrobial drugs for food animals with the emergence of antimicrobial drug resistance in bacteria pathogenic to humans, with a particular focus on the public health aspects. Deductions from the epidemiology of food-borne infections, ecological studies, outbreak investigations, typing studies and direct epidemiological observations show that resistant bacteria are transferred from food animals to man. In addition to transfer in the food chain, exchange of mobile genetic elements among commensal and pathogenic bacteria contributes to the emergence of drug resistance. There is growing evidence that this has measurable consequences for human public health. One consequence is increased transmission supported by unrelated use of anti-microbials in humans. Other consequences are related to reduced efficacy of early empirical treatment, limitations in the choices for treatment after confirmed microbiological diagnosis, and finally a possible coselection of virulence traits. Recent epidemiological studies have measured these consequences in terms of excess mortality associated with resistance, increased duration of illness, and increased risk of invasive illness or hospitalization following infections with resistant Salmonella.  相似文献   

4.
The emerging foodborne and waterborne pathogen, Arcobacter, has been linked to various gastrointestinal diseases. Currently, 19 species are established or proposed; consequently, there has been an increase in the number of publications regarding Arcobacter since it was first introduced in 1991. To better understand the potential public health risks posed by Arcobacter, this review summarizes the current knowledge concerning the global distribution and the prevalence of Arcobacter in food and water. Arcobacter spp. were identified in food animals, food‐processing environments and a variety of foods, including vegetables, poultry, beef, dairy products, seafood, pork, lamb and rabbit. A wide range of waterbodies has been reported to be contaminated with Arcobacter spp., such as wastewater, seawater, lake and river water, drinking water, groundwater and recreational water. In addition, Arcobacter has also been isolated from pets, domestic birds, wildlife, zoo and farm animals. It is expected that advancements in molecular techniques will facilitate better detection worldwide and aid in understanding the pathogenicity of Arcobacter. However, more extensive and rigorous surveillance systems are needed to better understand the occurrence of Arcobacter in food and water in various regions of the world, as well as uncover other potential public health risks, that is antibiotic resistance and disinfection efficiency, to reduce the possibility of foodborne and waterborne infections.  相似文献   

5.
Antibiotic resistance mediated by bacterial production of extended‐spectrum beta‐lactamase (ESBL) is a global threat to public health. ESBL resistance is most commonly hospital‐acquired; however, infections acquired outside of hospital settings have raised concerns over the role of livestock and wildlife in the zoonotic spread of ESBL‐producing bacteria. Only limited data are available on the circulation of ESBL‐producing bacteria in animals. Here, we report ESBL‐producing Escherichia coli in wild common vampire bats Desmodus rotundus and livestock near Lima, Peru. Molecular analyses revealed that most of this resistance resulted from the expression of blaCTX‐M‐15 genes carried by plasmids, which are disseminating worldwide in hospital settings and have also been observed in healthy children of Peru. Multilocus sequence typing showed a diverse pool of E. coli strains carrying this resistance that were not always host species‐specific, suggesting sharing of strains between species or infection from a common source. This study shows widespread ESBL resistance in wild and domestic animals, supporting animal communities as a potential source of resistance. Future work is needed to elucidate the role of bats in the dissemination of antibiotic‐resistant strains of public health importance and to understand the origin of the observed resistance.  相似文献   

6.
Wildlife trade (both formal and informal) is a potential driver of disease introduction and emergence. Legislative proposals aim to prevent these risks by banning wildlife imports, and creating ‘white lists’ of species that are cleared for importation. These approaches pose economic harm to the pet industry, and place substantial burden on importers and/or federal agencies to provide proof of low risk for importation of individual species. As a feasibility study, a risk prioritization tool was developed to rank the pathogens found in rodent species imported from Latin America into the United States with the highest risk of zoonotic consequence in the United States. Four formally traded species and 16 zoonotic pathogens were identified. Risk scores were based on the likelihood of pathogen release and human exposure, and the severity of the disease (consequences). Based on the methodology applied, three pathogens (Mycobacterium microti, Giardia spp. and Francisella tularensis) in one species (Cavia porcellus) were ranked as highest concern. The goal of this study was to present a methodological approach by which preliminary management resources can be allocated to the identified high‐concern pathogen–species combinations when warranted. This tool can be expanded to other taxa and geographic locations to inform policy surrounding the wildlife trade.  相似文献   

7.
Rat‐associated zoonoses transmitted through faeces or urine are of particular concern for public health because environmental exposure in homes and businesses may be frequent and undetected. To identify times and locations with greater public health risks from rats, we investigated whether rat characteristics, environmental features, socioeconomic factors, or season could predict rat infection risk across diverse urban neighbourhoods. In partnership with a pest management company, we sampled rats in 13 community areas along an income gradient in Chicago, a large city where concern about rats has increased in recent years. We collected kidneys for Leptospira spp. testing and colon contents for aerobic bacteria such as Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli. Of 202 sampled rats, 5% carried Leptospira spp. and 22% carried E. coli. Rats were significantly more likely to carry Leptospira spp. on blocks with more standing water complaints in higher‐income neighbourhoods (OR = 6.74, 95% CI: 1.54–29.39). Rats were significantly more likely to carry E. coli on blocks with more food vendors (OR = 9.94, 2.27–43.50) particularly in low‐income neighbourhoods (OR = 0.26, 0.09–0.82) and in the spring (OR = 15.96, 2.90–88.62). We detected a high diversity of E. coli serovars but none contained major virulence factors. These associations between environmental features related to sanitation and infection risk in rats support transmission through water for Leptospira spp. and faecal–oral transmission for E. coli. We also found opposing relationships between zoonotic infection risk and income for these two pathogens. Thus, our results highlight the importance of sanitation for predicting zoonotic disease risks and including diverse urban areas in pathogen surveillance to mitigate public health risks from rats.  相似文献   

8.
Wildlife rehabilitators are at risk of zoonotic diseases because they often have prolonged contact with many species of wildlife and their bodily fluids. Raccoon roundworm (Baylisascaris procyonis) is a common zoonotic parasite of raccoons that has the potential to cause severe or fatal neurologic disease in a broad variety of hosts if the eggs within raccoon faeces are ingested. We administered an online survey to wildlife rehabilitators to assess their knowledge regarding aspects of transmission, biology and disease caused by B. procyonis, and also to evaluate attitudes towards wildlife diseases and B. procyonis as an occupational hazard. Knowledge was assessed using multiple choice and true–false questions; attitudes were measured using Likert‐type items. A total of 659 complete or near‐complete responses (missing fewer than three knowledge or attitudes items and/or non‐response to some demographic fields) were collected. The median knowledge score was 7/14 questions correct (range: 0–14 correct). Generally, individuals with higher levels of education and rehabilitation experience, veterinary professionals and those who are members of professional wildlife rehabilitation groups scored above the median significantly more often (p < .01). Significantly more rehabilitators who were located in the south‐east and those with part‐time or infrequent commitments scored below the median overall knowledge score. There was general agreement that B. procyonis is a health risk of rehabilitators and that measures should be taken to control transmission to people and animals. Some factors explaining differences in attitudes include setting of rehabilitation (home versus animal care facility), veterinary profession, region, membership in a wildlife rehabilitation group and rehabilitation of raccoons. Findings emphasize the importance of awareness and mentorship to inform rehabilitators on the potential risks of B. procyonis and other potential zoonoses within captive wildlife settings, and the important role of professional wildlife rehabilitator groups in disseminating educational materials.  相似文献   

9.
Marine mammals evoke strong public affection as well as considerable scientific interest. However, the resultant close contact with marine wildlife poses human health risks, including traumatic injury and zoonotic disease transmission. The majority of zoonotic marine mammal diseases result in localized skin infections in man that resolve spontaneously or with appropriate medical therapy. However, other marine mammal zoonoses, if left untreated, induce life‐threatening systemic diseases that could pose public health risks. As the number of zoonotic diseases rises, the diagnosis of and treatment for these emerging pathogens pose special challenges requiring the expertise of physicians, veterinarians and wildlife biologists. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of the bacterial, viral and fungal marine mammal zoonotic diseases that we hope will be utilized by public health professionals, physicians, veterinarians and wildlife biologists to better understand, diagnose and prevent marine mammal zoonotic diseases.  相似文献   

10.
Pet ownership affects engagement with animal-related activities and may be related to support of wildlife management. British participants (N = 220) completed an online survey providing information on pet ownership, attitudes toward pets, and support for wildlife management strategies. Within this sample, pet owners and individuals with positive attitudes toward pets were less supportive of strategies that put human needs before the needs of wildlife, more supportive of strategies attempting to avoid species extinctions, and opposed to strategies requiring compromises of individual species. Pet owners’ affectionate attitudes toward animals and opposition to their exploitation may be important in dictating attitudes toward wildlife. Conservation planners could apply these findings when seeking support for management strategies that constrain freedoms of pets and wildlife. Utilizing the sympathetic attitudes of pet owners toward animals by focusing on welfare and survival benefits for wildlife species may help foster support for management strategies.  相似文献   

11.
While technological advances in animal husbandry have facilitated increases in global meat production, the high density and geographic concentration of food animal production facilities pose risks of infectious disease transmission. The scale of the 2014–2015 highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N2 outbreak in the United States demonstrates the challenges in achieving pathogen control within and around industrial animal facilities using existing technologies. We discuss gaps in current practice in two specific systems within these facilities – ventilation and waste management – which are under‐recognized as important drivers of microbial porosity. The development of innovative ventilation systems to reduce influx and efflux of pathogens is critically needed, and cross‐sectoral partnerships should be incentivized to do so. Adapting current human biosolid treatment technologies for farm applications, reducing animal stocking density and shifting waste management responsibility from farmer to corporation would reduce risk from current manure management systems. While innovative approaches to functionally altering the industrial food animal production system remain important priorities to promote sustainability, our intention here is to identify gaps within the current system that allow for pathogen emergence and transmission and address specific areas in which technological, administrative or policy changes are necessary to mitigate these risks.  相似文献   

12.
隐孢子虫病（Cryptosporidiosis）是一种全球性的人兽共患原虫病,具有广泛的宿主范围,可以感染鸟类、哺乳类、鱼类、爬行类、两栖类以及人在内的240多种动物。野生动物隐孢子虫做为人隐孢子虫病感染的重要传播来源,对其进行生物学研究具有重要的公共卫生意义。本文分别叙述了野生动物隐孢子虫的种类及基因型,为进一步研究野生动物的隐孢子虫病提供了有效的参考。  相似文献   

13.
Viruses of lower vertebrates recently became a field of interest to the public due to increasing epizootics and economic losses of poikilothermic animals. These were reported worldwide from both wildlife and collections of aquatic poikilothermic animals. Several RNA and DNA viruses infecting fish, amphibians and reptiles have been studied intensively during the last 20 years. Many of these viruses induce diseases resulting in important economic losses of lower vertebrates, especially in fish aquaculture. In addition, some of the DNA viruses seem to be emerging pathogens involved in the worldwide decline in wildlife. Irido‐, herpes‐ and polyomavirus infections may be involved in the reduction in the numbers of endangered amphibian and reptile species. In this context the knowledge of several important RNA viruses such as orthomyxo‐, paramyxo‐, rhabdo‐, retro‐, corona‐, calici‐, toga‐, picorna‐, noda‐, reo‐ and birnaviruses, and DNA viruses such as parvo‐, irido‐, herpes‐, adeno‐, polyoma‐ and poxviruses, is described in this review.  相似文献   

14.
ABSTRACT: Non-typhoidal Salmonella represents an important human and animal pathogen world-wide. Most human salmonellosis cases are foodborne, but each year infections are also acquired through direct or indirect animal contact in homes, veterinary clinics, zoological gardens, farm environments or other public, professional or private settings. Clinically affected animals may exhibit a higher prevalence of shedding than apparently healthy animals, but both can shed Salmonella over long periods of time. In addition, environmental contamination and indirect transmission through contaminated food and water may complicate control efforts. The public health risk varies by animal species, age group, husbandry practice and health status, and certain human subpopulations are at a heightened risk of infection due to biological or behavioral risk factors. Some serotypes such as Salmonella Dublin are adapted to individual host species, while others, for instance Salmonella Typhimurium, readily infect a broad range of host species, but the potential implications for human health are currently unclear. Basic hygiene practices and the implementation of scientifically based management strategies can efficiently mitigate the risks associated with animal contacts. However, the general public is frequently unaware of the specific disease risks involved, and high-risk behaviors are common. Here we describe the epidemiology and serotype distribution of Salmonella in a variety of host species. In addition, we review our current understanding of the public health risks associated with different types of contacts between humans and animals in public, professional or private settings, and, where appropriate, discuss potential risk mitigation strategies.  相似文献   

15.
The genus Salmonella is found throughout the world and is a potential pathogen for most vertebrates. It is also the most common cause of food‐borne illness in humans, and wildlife is an emerging source of food‐borne disease in humans due to the consumption of game meat. Wild boar is one of the most abundant European game species and these wild swine are known to be carriers of zoonotic and food‐borne pathogens such as Salmonella. Isolation of the pathogen, serotyping and molecular biology are necessary for elucidating epidemiological connections in multi‐host populations. Although disease management at population level can be addressed using a number of different strategies, such management is difficult in free‐living wildlife populations due to the lack of experience with the wildlife–livestock interface. Herein, we provide the results of a 4‐year Salmonella survey in sympatric populations of wild boar and cattle in the Ports de Tortosa i Beseit National Game Reserve (NE Spain). We also evaluated the effects of two management strategies, cattle removal and increased wild boar harvesting (i.e. by hunting and trapping), on the prevalence of the Salmonella serovar community. The serovars Meleagridis and Anatum were found to be shared by cattle and wild boar, a finding that was confirmed by 100% DNA similarity patterns using pulse field gel electrophoresis. Cattle removal was more efficient than the culling of wild boar as a means of reducing the prevalence of shared serotypes, which underlines the role of cattle as a reservoir of Salmonella for wild boar. To our knowledge, this is the first attempt to manage Salmonella in the wild, and the results have implications for management.  相似文献   

16.
Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV) is a member of the Lyssavirus genus of the Rhabdoviridae family and is found in Australian bat species. It is of public health concern because of the rabies-like syndrome it causes in humans, resulting in government health and wildlife agencies using varied communication approaches to inform targeted audiences about zoonotic risks associated with handling bats. Despite these warnings, the number of reports of human-bat interactions remains high. This paper details a survey conducted to analyse the approaches utilised by a range of stakeholders to educate and communicate warnings to their target audiences. The survey focused on identifying the target audiences, communication methods used, along with the message frequency, content, and perceived effectiveness. Analysis of the top three messages delivered by stakeholders revealed that over half were information-focused messages and over a third, instruction-focused. Stakeholders identified the need to balance messaging about bat handling risks with information regarding the vulnerable status of bats and their environmental significance. Whilst the most common and (perceived) effective method of communication was one-on-one discussions, it was also identified to be ineffective for targeting mass audiences leading stakeholders to recognise the need to adapt to more efficient means of communication. The outcomes of this study may be useful to improve risk communication strategies regarding ABLV in Australia.  相似文献   

17.
Baiting and supplemental feeding of wildlife are widespread, yet highly controversial management practices, with important implications for ecosystems, livestock production, and potentially human health. An often underappreciated threat of such feeding practices is the potential to facilitate intra- and inter-specific disease transmission. We provide a comprehensive review of the scientific evidence of baiting and supplemental feeding on disease transmission risk in wildlife, with an emphasis on large herbivores in North America. While the objectives of supplemental feeding and baiting typically differ, the effects on disease transmission of these practices are largely the same. Both feeding and baiting provide wildlife with natural or non-natural food at specific locations in the environment, which can result in large congregations of individuals and species in a small area and increased local densities. Feeding can lead to increased potential for disease transmission either directly (via direct animal contact) or indirectly (via feed functioning as a fomite, spreading disease into the adjacent environment and to other animals). We identified numerous diseases that currently pose a significant concern to the health of individuals and species of large wild mammals across North America, the spread of which are either clearly facilitated or most likely facilitated by the application of supplemental feeding or baiting. Wildlife diseases also have important threats to human and livestock health. Although the risk of intra- and inter-species disease transmission likely increases when animals concentrate at feeding stations, only in a few cases was disease prevalence and transmission measured and compared between populations. Mostly these were experimental situations under controlled conditions, limiting direct scientific evidence that feeding practices exacerbates disease occurrence, exposure, transmission, and spread in the environment. Vaccination programs utilizing baits have received variable levels of success. Although important gaps in the scientific literature exist, current information is sufficient to conclude that providing food to wildlife through supplemental feeding or baiting has great potential to negatively impact species health and represents a non-natural arena for disease transmission and preservation. Ultimately, this undermines the initial purpose of feeding practices and represents a serious risk to the maintenance of biodiversity, ecosystem functioning, human health, and livestock production. Managers should consider disease transmission as a real and serious concern in their decision to implement or eliminate feeding programs. Disease surveillance should be a crucial element within the long-term monitoring of any feeding program in combination with other available preventive measures to limit disease transmission and spread.  相似文献   

18.
Antimicrobial‐resistant bacteria represent an important concern impacting both veterinary medicine and public health. The rising prevalence of extended‐spectrum beta‐lactamase (ESBL), AmpC beta‐lactamase, carbapenemase (CRE) and fluoroquinolone‐resistant Enterobacteriaceae continually decreases the efficiency of clinically important antibiotics. Moreover, the potential for zoonotic transmission of antibiotic‐resistant enteric bacteria increases the risk to public health. Our objective was to estimate the prevalence of specific antibiotic‐resistant bacteria on human contact surfaces in various animal environments. Environmental surface samples were collected from companion animal shelters, private equine facilities, dairy farms, livestock auction markets and livestock areas of county fairs using electrostatic cloths. Samples were screened for Enterobacteriaceae expressing AmpC, ESBL, CRE or fluoroquinolone resistance using selective media. Livestock auction markets and county fairs had higher levels of bacteria expressing both cephalosporin and fluoroquinolone resistance than did equine, dairy, and companion animal environments. Equine facilities harboured more bacteria expressing cephalosporin resistance than companion animal shelters, but less fluoroquinolone resistance. The regular use of extended‐spectrum cephalosporins in livestock populations could account for the increased levels of cephalosporin resistance in livestock environments compared to companion animal and equine facilities. Human surfaces, as well as shared human and animal surfaces, were contaminated with resistant bacteria regardless of species environment. Detecting these bacteria on common human contact surfaces suggests that the environment can serve as a reservoir for the zoonotic transmission of antibiotic‐resistant bacteria and resistance genes. Identifying interventions to lower the prevalence of antibiotic‐resistant bacteria in animal environments will protect both animal and public health.  相似文献   

19.
Leishmania infantum causes human and canine leishmaniosis. The parasite, transmitted by phlebotomine sand flies, infects species other than dogs and people, including wildlife, although their role as reservoirs of infection remains unknown for most species. Molecular typing of parasites to investigate genetic variability and evolutionary proximity can help understand transmission cycles and designing control strategies. We investigated Leishmania DNA variability in kinetoplast (kDNA) and internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) sequences in asymptomatically infected wildlife (n = 58) and symptomatically and asymptomatically infected humans (n = 38) and dogs (n = 15) from south‐east Spain, using single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and in silico restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analyses. All ITS2 sequences (n = 76) displayed a 99%–100% nucleotide identity with a L. infantum reference sequence, except one with a 98% identity to a reference Leishmania panamensis sequence, from an Ecuadorian patient. No heterogeneity was recorded in the 73 L. infantum ITS2 sequences except for one SNP in a human parasite sequence. In contrast, kDNA analysis of 44 L. infantum sequences revealed 11 SNP genotypes (nucleotide variability up to 4.3%) and four RFLP genotypes including B, F and newly described S and T genotypes. Genotype frequency was significantly greater in symptomatic compared to asymptomatic individuals. Both methods similarly grouped parasites as predominantly or exclusively found in humans, in dogs, in wildlife or in all three of them. Accordingly, the phylogenetic analysis of kDNA sequences revealed three main clusters, two as a paraphyletic human parasites clade and a third including dogs, people and wildlife parasites. Results suggest that Leishmania infantum genetics is complex even in small geographical areas and that, probably, several independent transmission cycles take place simultaneously including some connecting animals and humans. Investigating these transmission networks may be useful in understanding the transmission dynamics, infection risk and therefore in planning L. infantum control strategies.  相似文献   

20.
Resistance to anti‐microbial agents has become one of the main issues in public health strategies world‐wide. Much attention has been paid to the emergence of pathogenic micro‐organisms such as enterococci or Salmonella that have developed resistance mechanisms that render them almost untreatable with current antibiotics. One of the alleged reasons for such an emergence is the non‐medical use of antibiotics, especially in animals. However, only recently have veterinary forums and journals begun to discuss this topic. On the other hand, anti‐microbial resistance has also become a problem in veterinary medicine and the number of reports indicating high rates of resistance among animal‐originated micro‐organisms is considerable. The present review deals with the mechanisms of resistance known for antibiotics in common veterinary use, the problem of anti‐microbial resistance in veterinary medicine and the links between the use of antibiotics in animals and the emergence of anti‐microbial resistance in humans.  相似文献   

设为首页 | 免责声明 | 关于勤云 | 加入收藏

Copyright©北京勤云科技发展有限公司  京ICP备09084417号