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1.
利用细胞培养、原位杂交、免疫组化、图像分析等技术研究缺氧与肉鸡心肌细胞癌基因c-fos和c-myc表达的关系,进一步阐明缺氧与以右心肥大、衰竭为特征的肉鸡腹水综合征的关系。结果显示,缺氧显著引起心肌细胞内癌基因c-fos和c-mycmRNA的表达(c-fos mRNA:常氧149.6±22.4;缺氧205.4±57.6,P<0.01;c-myc mRNA:常氧155.2±25.7;缺氧197.4±26.2,P<0.01)。缺氧显著引起心肌细胞内癌基因c-fos和c-myc蛋白的表达(c-fos蛋白:常氧159.1±37.1,缺氧240.3±49.6;c-myc蛋白:常氧149.6±24.9,缺氧236.3±55.4;P<0.01)。结果表明缺氧显著诱发肉鸡心肌细胞内癌基因c-fos、c-myc的转录和表达,是启动心肌细胞肥大的重要原因。因此本研究进一步阐明缺氧是以右心肥大衰竭为特征的肉鸡腹水综合征的主要诱因。  相似文献   

2.
利用细胞免疫组化、原位杂交技术研究钙信号与缺氧诱发肺动脉平滑肌细胞(PASMC)癌基因c-fos、c-myc表达的关系。结果显示,钙通道拮抗剂verapamil(V)、nifedipine(N)、Cyclosporin A(C)显著抑制缺氧引起的c-fos和c-mycmRNA的表达(其中c-fosmRNA:缺氧组198.1±32.8,缺氧 V组161.6±24.1,缺氧 N组173.7±35.8,缺氧 C组159.0±32.8,P<0.01;c-mycmRNA:缺氧组187.1±22.4,缺氧 V组150.5±22.6,缺氧 N组155.1±25.4,缺氧 C组148.9±29.7,P<0.01)。同时显著抑制缺氧引起的c-fos和c-myc蛋白的表达(其中c-fos蛋白:缺氧组225.9±37.0,缺氧 V组162.3±33.6,缺氧 N组157.4±28.9,缺氧 C组151.6±37.3,P<0.01;c-myc蛋白:缺氧组228.8±33.4,缺氧 V组170.2±26.7,缺氧 N组170.7±28.5,缺氧 C组179.1±29.2,P<0.01)。verapamil和nifedipine能够显著抑制缺氧引起的癌基因表达,表明钙信号转导参与了缺氧引起PASMC癌基因的表达过程。Cyclosporin A可显著抑制缺氧引起的癌基因的转录表达,表明钙信号转导系统中的Ca2 /CaM-CaN转导通路在PASMC增殖过程中具有重要作用。PASMC增殖是肉鸡腹水综合征的主要特征,钙信号转导激活引起PASMC增殖的c-fos和c-myc的转录表达,表明钙信号转导可能与肉鸡腹水综合征的发生发展密切相关。  相似文献   

3.
利用细胞培养、免疫组化、原位杂交、图像分析技术研究钙信号与缺氧诱发心肌细胞癌基因c-fos、c-myc表达的关系,进一步阐明钙信号转导与以右心肥大衰竭为特征的肉鸡腹水综合征(AS)的关系。结果显示,钙通道拮抗剂异搏安(V)、硝苯吡啶(N)、环孢霉素A(C)显著抑制缺氧引起的癌基因c-fos和c-myc mRNA的表达(c-fosmR-NA:常氧149.6&#177;22.4;缺氧205.4&#177;57.6,缺氧+V151.3&#177;20.1,缺氧+N154.5&#177;25.2,缺氧+C 166.5&#177;22.1;c-myc mRNA:常氧155.2&#177;25.7;缺氧197.4&#177;26.2,缺氧+V 160.5&#177;19.4,缺氧+N 171.3&#177;25.4,缺氧+C158.9&#177;23.6)。同时显著抑制缺氧引起的癌基因c-fos和c-myc蛋白的表达(c-fos蛋白:常氧159.1&#177;37.1,缺氧240.3&#177;49.6,缺氧+V 165.2&#177;52.2,缺氧+N 166.5&#177;49.8,缺氧+C 190.8&#177;33.6;c-myc蛋白:常氧149.6&#177;24.9,缺氧236.3&#177;55.4,缺氧+V178.9&#177;42.1,缺氧+N174.4&#177;36.3,缺氧+C 16...  相似文献   

4.
肉鸡肺动脉高压是以肺动脉压血管重构为特征的一种疾病,众多研究揭示肺血管重构是其中心环节之一。细胞内钙离子([Ca2+])浓度的升高是诱发并导致血管重构的重要机制,钙敏感受体(CaSR)在肺动脉平滑肌细胞内钙离子稳态失调及低氧性肺血管收缩和肺血管重构中起着重要的作用。应用免疫组化和Western blot方法研究了缺氧条件下CaSR在AA肉鸡和藏鸡肺动脉平滑肌组织中的表达情况,为肉鸡腹水综合征(PAH)的肺动脉重构提供新的证据。结果表明,肉鸡组有肺水肿发生,藏鸡组无肺水肿发生,缺氧条件下饲养的肉鸡肺动脉平滑肌CaSR表达明显高于藏鸡组(P0.05)。通过探讨CaSR在AA肉鸡和藏鸡肺动脉平滑肌组织中的表达情况,从新的角度阐明了肉鸡腹水综合征发生的分子机制。  相似文献   

5.
对环境低温诱发肉鸡肺动脉高压综合征(Pulmonary hypertension syndrome,PHS)过程中肺小动脉壁c-mycmRNA的表达变化进行了研究,从而初步确定原癌基因c-myc在环境低温诱发肉鸡PHS过程中的参与作用,为肉鸡PHS发生机制的研究提供基础。120只雄性AA商品代肉鸡15日龄时随机分为对照组((22±1.5)℃)和低温组((11±2)℃)。15～50日龄,每周每组随机取6只,肺组织做石蜡切片,应用原位杂交染色法进行c-myc mRNA杂交,并结合图像分析法,测定环境低温诱发肉鸡PHS过程中肺小动脉壁原癌基因c-myc mRNA的表达情况。结果显示,低温组肉鸡PHS发生率(15.00%)极显著高于对照组(1.67%)(P<0.01);低温组肉鸡肺小动脉壁c-mycmRNA的表达从22日龄开始较对照组明显增加(P<0.05),从29～50日龄较对照组极显著升高(P<0.01)。结果表明,环境低温明显诱发了肉鸡肺小动脉壁c-myc mRNA的表达,且c-myc mRNA的表达参与了环境低温诱发的肉鸡PHS的发生发展。  相似文献   

6.
本试验旨在研究低温诱发肉鸡腹水综合征(AS)过程中平滑肌细胞增殖在肺血管重塑过程中的动态变化,初步探讨肺血管重塑的机制。160只15日龄雄性AA商品代肉鸡随机分为对照组(22℃±1.5℃)和低温组(11℃±2℃)。试验持续至50日龄,期间每周每组随机取6只,取肺组织做石蜡切片,Weigert-间苯二酚复红染色,观察并测定血管重塑情况;采用免疫组织化学方法检测肺动脉增殖细胞核抗原(PCNA)蛋白表达,并对其半定量化,分析平滑肌细胞增殖情况。50日龄时统计整个饲养过程中AS发生率。结果显示:(1)低温组肉鸡AS发生率(18.75%)极显著高于对照组(1.25%)(P<0.01);(2)低温组肉鸡直径20-50μm和50-150μm肺动脉结构从36日龄开始较对照组发生了明显的重塑(P<0.01或P<0.05);(3)低温组肉鸡直径20-50μm和50-150μm的肺动脉平滑肌细胞增殖指数分别从22日龄和36日龄开始极显著高于对照组(P<0.01)。结果表明:低温诱发肉鸡AS过程中肺动脉结构发生了明显的重塑,肺动脉平滑肌细胞发生了明显的增殖,并且平滑肌细胞增殖促进了肺血管重塑,在肉鸡AS发生发展过程中起着重要的作用。  相似文献   

7.
右心肥大衰竭是导致腹水综合征(ascites syndrome,AS)患鸡发病的重要因素.作者通过免疫组化和原位杂交技术初步探讨c-fos和c-jun在AS肉鸡右心肥大和衰竭过程中的变化及维拉帕米对其表达的影响.结果发现:在22、29、36、43和50日龄时,与对照组肉鸡相比,低温组肉鸡右心室心肌细胞c-fos/c-jun蛋白和mRNA的平均光密度值显著或极显著(P<0.05;P<0.01)升高,其mRNA的阳性面积百分比也极显著升高(P<0.01),与低温组肉鸡相比,维拉帕米组肉鸡右心室心肌细胞c-fos/c-jun蛋白和mRNA的平均光密度值显著或极显著(P<0.05;P<0.01)降低,其mRNA的阳性面积百分比也极显著降低(P<0.01).结果表明c-fos和c-jun癌基因在右心肥大和衰竭中起着重要作用.维拉帕米可有效抑制c-os和c-jun癌基因的表达,有利于防止右心肥大和功能性衰竭.  相似文献   

8.
试验旨在研究环境低温诱发肉鸡肺血管重塑过程中肺小动脉血管平滑肌细胞c-Myc蛋白的表达变化,初步探讨肉鸡肺血管重塑的发生机制.120只雄性AA商品代肉鸡15日龄时随机分为对照组((22±1.5)℃)条件下饲养)和低温组((11±2)℃条件下饲养).15～50日龄,每周每组随机取6只,取肺组织做石蜡切片,Weigert-间苯二酚复红染色,观察并测定m管重塑情况;采用免疫组织化学方法榆测肺动脉血管平滑肌细胞c-Myc蛋白表达,并对其进行半定量化.结果显示:(1)低温组肉鸡肺小动脉结构从36日龄开始较对照组发生了明显的重塑(P<0.01或P<0.05);(2)低温组肉鸡肺小动脉血管平滑肌细胞c-Myc蛋白表达从29日龄开始较对照组明显增加(P<0.01).结果表明:低温叫显诱发了肉鸡肺小动脉平滑肌细胞c-Myc蛋白的表达,且参与了肉鸡肺血管重塑的发生发展.  相似文献   

9.
为了揭示肉鸡肺动脉高压的形成机理,为预防和治疗肉鸡腹水综合征提供理论依据,试验研究了两种钙颉颃剂硝苯地平和维拉帕米对肉鸡肺动脉高压和腹水肉鸡右心肥大指数的影响.结果表明:44日龄,硝苯地平组肺动脉压极明显低于低温组(P<0.01);28和36日龄,维拉帕米明显降低肺动脉压 (P<0.05);44日龄维拉帕米组肺动脉压极明显低于低温组(P<0.01).硝苯地平和维拉帕米可降低肉鸡腹水心脏指数.结果说明维拉帕米和硝苯地平降低了低温诱发的肺动脉高压和肉鸡腹水综合征的发生率,降低肉鸡腹水心脏指数,初步证实钙信号参与了肺动脉高压的形成.  相似文献   

10.
将160只15日龄雄性AA商品代肉鸡随机分为对照组((22±1.5)℃)和低温组((11±2)℃)。15~50日龄,每组每周随机取6只,以右心导管法直接测定肺动脉压(PAP),并取肺组织做石蜡切片进行Weigert-间苯二酚复红染色,分析肺血管重塑情况。50日龄时统计整个饲养过程中肉鸡腹水综合征(AS)发生率。结果显示,低温组肉鸡AS发生率(18.75%)极显著高于对照组(1.25%)(P<0.01);低温组肉鸡PAP从22日龄开始较对照组明显升高(P<0.01或P<0.05);20~50、50~100、100~200μm肺动脉结构分别从36、43、43日龄开始较对照组发生了明显的重塑(P<0.01或P<0.05)。结果表明,低温诱发肉鸡AS过程中出现了明显的PAP升高和肺血管重塑,且肺动脉高压(PH)促进了肺血管重塑,肺血管重塑加剧了PAP升高。  相似文献   

11.
试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。  相似文献   

12.
Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.  相似文献   

13.
1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.  相似文献   

14.
Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.  相似文献   

15.
Human and equine athletes are reported to have a high prevalence of gastric disease, and anecdotal evidence suggests a similar phenomenon applies to racing sled dogs. To investigate the prevalence of gastric disease in racing sled dogs, we conducted 2 gastroscopy studies on dogs competing in the annual Iditarod Sled Dog Race. A pilot study of dogs that were either dropped from the 2000 Iditarod Sled Dog Race because of illness or that finished the race indicated that, approximately 5 days after competing, 10 of 28 dogs (35%) had endoscopic evidence of gastric ulceration, erosion, or hemorrhage. The next year, an endoscopic study of 73 dogs participating in the 2001 Iditarod race was performed in order to evaluate a larger population of dogs. Data from 70 of these dogs could be used; 34 (48.5%) had ulceration, erosion, gastric hemorrhage, or some combination of these findings. When this group of 70 dogs was compared retrospectively to a control group of 87 dogs presented to the Texas A&M University (TAMU) Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, the Iditarod sled dogs had a significantly higher prevalence (P = .049) of gastric lesions. These findings suggest that, similar to athletes of other species, elite canine athletes have an increased prevalence of gastric disease compared to the canine population at large.  相似文献   

16.
Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.  相似文献   

17.
The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.  相似文献   

18.
The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.  相似文献   

19.
The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.  相似文献   

20.
Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.  相似文献   

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