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1.
放牧对青海湖北岸高寒草原植物群落特征的影响   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
基于青海湖北岸高寒草原连续3年放牧控制试验,研究了暖季和冷季放牧草地植物群落特征的变化。结果表明,暖季和冷季放牧草地群落地上生物量均随放牧强度的增加呈现下降趋势,禾本科地上生物量的变化趋势基本与群落地上生物量的一致;中度放牧对暖季放牧草地植被的影响程度高于冷季放牧草地;围栏封育区和冷季重度放牧草地的优势种均为紫花针茅(Stipapurpurea)和矮嵩草(Kobresia humilis),暖季放牧各放牧小区和冷季放牧草地轻度和中度放牧处理优势种均为紫花针茅和披针叶黄华(Thermopsis lanceolata);随放牧强度的增加,暖季放牧草地群落物种多样性指数和均匀度指数表现出先降低后增加的趋势,冷季放牧草地群落物种多样性指数和均匀度指数表现出增加的趋势,但是多样性指数在暖、冷季放牧草地均以重度放牧区最高。  相似文献   

2.
以青藏高原玛曲地区高寒草甸为研究对象,通过对暖季牧场与冷季牧场不同放牧强度的比较分析,探讨了可萌发土壤种子库的密度、垂直分布规律及其与地上植被的关系。结果表明,1)暖季牧场土壤种子库中,轻度放牧有12种,种子密度为2 307.66粒·m~(-2),重度放牧有6种,种子密度为1 065.08粒·m~(-2),禁牧有5种,种子密度为828.38粒·m~(-2),轻度放牧的物种丰富度及密度都显著大于重度放牧草地(P0.05);冷季牧场轻度放牧有12种,种子密度为3 786.88粒·m~(-2),重度有8种,种子密度为5 621.15粒·m~(-2),禁牧有5种,种子密度为532.53粒·m~(-2),轻度放牧种子密度小于重度放牧。2)无论是暖季牧场还是冷季牧场轻度放牧土壤种子库的多样性指数、均匀度指数、优势度指数和丰富度指数均大于重度放牧,土壤种子库与地上植被的相似性在不同的放牧强度下都小于0.3,其中不放牧时的相似性最小,轻度放牧时的相似性最高。而暖季牧场和冷季牧场的轻度放牧和重度放牧两种放牧强度之间的相似性系数都最大,分别为0.63和0.67。3)土壤种子库在不同处理间随着土层的加深数量都呈现迅速减少的趋势,大部分集中在0-5cm。  相似文献   

3.
费璇  锁才序  向双  孙书存 《草地学报》2022,30(8):1954-1963
为阐明高寒草甸植物群落对长期季节放牧的响应机制,本试验选取有10年以上冷、暖季放牧历史的湿生、中生、旱生高寒草甸进行探究。结果显示暖季放牧(6月至10月)下,湿生草甸香农指数与物种丰富度均显著小于冷季放牧(11月至翌年5月)(P＜0.05),而旱生草甸多样性指数显著大于冷季放牧(P＜0.05);冷季放牧地上生物量显著高于暖季放牧(P＜0.05),其中暖季放牧下莎草科地上生物量所占比例最高。湿生草甸暖季牧场与旱生草甸冷季牧场莎草科重要值最高,其余牧场均为双子叶杂草重要值最高(P＜0.05);经ANOSIM检验,季节性放牧下群落结构均有显著差异(P＜0.01),湿生、旱生草甸群落结构差异较大,而中生草甸群落结构差异较小。本研究表明长期季节性放牧会影响植物群落结构特征,研究可为不同生境草甸的放牧制度和可持续发展提供理论基础。  相似文献   

4.
藏北高寒草地样带物种多样性沿降水梯度的分布格局   总被引：4，自引：0，他引：4  
 在藏北高原高寒草地样带上对４０个围栏内草地群落物种多样性和地上生物量进行测定,探讨了生长季降水对高寒草地生物量和物种多样性分布格局的影响以及地上生物量－物种多样性之间的关系模式。结果表明,降水格局显著地影响藏北高原内部高寒草地群落物种丰富度、多样性和均匀度,群落结构特征与初级生产力关系密切;藏北地区高寒草地地上生物量、物种丰富度、Ｓｈａｎｎｏｎ－Ｗｉｅｎｅｒ指数和Ｐｉｅｌｏｕ均匀度指数随生长季累积降水呈指数增加趋势;在高寒草地群落物种丰富度－生产力关系研究中单峰模式的判别系数R２（０．７５４）略高于线性回归模型（０．７４３）。沿藏北高原样带高寒草地物种丰富度随地上生物量单调递增,单峰模式的单调递减区间并未出现;然而单峰模型预示着在地上生物量高于１２１．１７ｇ／ｍ２ 的高寒草地群落物种丰富度可能随生物量单调递减,从而使物种丰富度－地上生物量表现为较为标准的单峰模式;Ｓｈａｎｎｏｎ－Ｗｉｅｎｅｒ多样性指数和Ｐｉｅｌｏｕ均匀度指数与地上生物量也均呈单峰模式,但其单调递减区间窄于单调递增区间,峰值分别对应的草地群落地上生物量为７１．９０和６０．９０ｇ／ｍ２。  相似文献   

5.
通过2年的连续放牧试验,采用比较样地法,调查了不同放牧强度对环青海湖高寒草原生物多样性和生产力的影响,并探讨了植物物种多样性与草地生产力之间的关系,为高寒草原的合理利用提供基础资料。结果表明:物种丰富度和多样性指数随放牧强度的增加基本呈单峰变化,即在中度放牧下多样性最高,重度放牧下群落物种丰富度、多样性指数和均匀度指数均表现为最小;群落生产力随放牧强度的增加而降低(P<0.05);莎草科地上生物量差异不显著,禾本科和豆科生产力降低(P<0.05),杂类草生物量有增加趋势;禾草和豆科比例减小,莎草和杂类草比例增加;草地生产力与Simpson多样性指数和Alatalo均匀度指数呈显著的单峰函数关系(R2=0.910, P=20.027; R2=0.953, P=20.010),结合Simpson多样性指数和Alatalo均匀度指数才能更好地反映维持草地生产力水平的多样性指标。放牧强度是影响群落物种多样性和生产力及其关系的重要因素。  相似文献   

6.
在肃南裕固族自治县甘肃马鹿(Cervus elaphus kansuensis)不同放牧率(1.00、1.45、2.45、3.45、4.85、6.90AUM·hm-2)的冬季牧场,研究草原生产力与群落结构对牧草最佳生长期刈割的短期响应。结果表明,1)随放牧强度增加,刈割群落物种丰富度呈先增加后减少趋势,其中4.85 AUM·hm-2放牧率下的群落物种丰富度最高;刈割显著增加草地地上生物量。2)刈割群落的牧草株高和地上生物量均表现为超补偿生长,补偿指数分别以3.45、6.90AUM·hm-2放牧样地最高;各优势种变化趋势不同。3)刈割群落的Simpson优势度指数、Pielou均匀度指数在放牧较重样地最高;随放牧强度增加,群落Shannon-Wiener多样性指数呈先增加后减少趋势,以4.85 AUM·hm-2群落最高;且除4.85 AUM·hm-2群落外,刈割后的群落Shannon-Wiener多样性指数显著高于刈割前的(P0.05)。4)各功能群植物对不同放牧强度响应不同。因此,适宜放牧强度下,刈割能发挥草地最大生产潜力并维持群落结构稳定性。  相似文献   

7.
藏北高寒草原群落维持性能对封育年限的响应   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
针对近年来退化高寒草原的恢复和合理利用的问题,对自然放牧、封育3年和7年的藏北申扎高寒草原设置样地,采用群落调查、收割法收集地上生物量,根钻法收集地下生物量等,比较分析不同封育年限下草地群落各生态指标。结果表明,高寒草原围栏封育后,随自然放牧到3年禁牧再到7年禁牧,植被高度持续增加,地上地下生物量、总盖度、物种多样性维持性能增加再降低,Pielou 均匀度指数在自然放牧草地最大。随封育年限延长,禾草类及莎草类植物功能群生物量及重要值显著增加,杂草类功能群生物量及重要值显著降低,说明封育措施有利于群落的正向演替。但通过对群落总盖度、地上生物量及群落种类组成与封育年限间关系进行统计分析表明,藏北高寒草原封育达3到5年后以1.23只羊单位/hm2的放牧强度放牧为佳。  相似文献   

8.
为明晰不同放牧模式对高寒草句植被特征的影响,以祁连山东缘全年连续放牧(CG)、冷季重度放牧(HG)、冷季轻度放牧(LG)、全年划区轮牧(RG)和全年禁牧(NG)5种不同模式放牧草地为研究对象,系统研究植物群落组成和结构的变化.结果 表明:植物群落的盖度、密度、地上生物量、地下生物量、Shannon-Wiener多样性指数、Pielou均匀度指数、丰富度指数和辛普森指数均在RG样地最高,而在CG样地最低.此外,NG样地禾本科植物密度显著提高,莎草科、豆科、杂类草植物密度、群落总密度、植物群落物种数和多样性降低,和RG样地相比,NG样地总物种数减少了20种.因此,为期5年禁牧致使高寒草句植物群落结构单一化,不利于植物多样性的维持.从提高生产力和植物多样性的角度来看,全年划区轮牧是祁连山东缘高寒草甸生态系统的最佳放牧模式.  相似文献   

9.
放牧对赖草群落生物量及植物多样性的影响   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
通过对围封5年与自由放牧的赖草（Leymus secalinus）群落进行整个生长季的生物量和物种多样性动态观测,旨在了解放牧对赖草群落的影响。结果表明：整个生长季围栏内外赖草始终占据主导地位,放牧样地物种丰富度指数显著高于围封样地（P<0.05）,多样性指数和均匀度指数在不同时期变化趋势不同;赖草群落地上生物量、高度、盖度、物种丰富度、多样性指数和均匀度指数在整个生长季均表现为先增加后降低,放牧显著降低群落地上生物量（P<0.05）,在整个生长季放牧使群落盖度平均降低31.82%,群落高度平均降低36.37 cm;围封样地群落地下生物量在7月和9月出现2个峰值,分别为4148.4 和4359.27 g·m-2,放牧样地地下生物量在8月达到最大,为2559.28 g·m-2;群落地下生物量随土层深度的增加所占比例逐渐减小,其中围封和放牧样地0~30 cm土层所占比例分别为75.64%和77.37%。适度放牧有利于促进赖草群落的物种多样性,不合理放牧降低草地植物群落的盖度、高度和生物量,因此围栏封育能够促进赖草草地的稳定和可持续发展。  相似文献   

10.
氮素添加对草地生态系统地上生物量具有普遍促进作用,但对解释引起物种多样性丧失的机制仍存在较大争议。本研究以黄土高原半干旱区长期封育和连续放牧草地为对象,通过设置不同氮素添加水平来探索两种典型的草地管理方式下群落地上生物量、物种多样性、群落组分结构对氮素添加的响应及其异同以及物种多样性与地上生物量的关系,并研究这些响应的潜在生态学机制。结果显示,1)氮素添加显著提高长期封育草地地上生物量的同时降低了物种多样性;放牧草地群落地上生物量、物种多样性对氮素添加的响应与封育草地相同,但其响应程度均小于封育施肥草地;2)草地群落物种多样性随地表凋落物生物量增加而降低,随植被透光率增加而升高; 3)封育施肥草地Shannon-Wiener多样性指数与地上生物量存在显著线性负相关关系,而放牧施肥草地的物种多样性与地上生物量不存在显著的相关关系。以上结果表明放牧能够减缓施肥对物种多样性的负效应,在轻微降低物种多样性的前提下显著提高群落地上生物量,是一种合理的草地管理方式。  相似文献   

11.
试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。  相似文献   

12.
Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.  相似文献   

13.
1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.  相似文献   

14.
Human and equine athletes are reported to have a high prevalence of gastric disease, and anecdotal evidence suggests a similar phenomenon applies to racing sled dogs. To investigate the prevalence of gastric disease in racing sled dogs, we conducted 2 gastroscopy studies on dogs competing in the annual Iditarod Sled Dog Race. A pilot study of dogs that were either dropped from the 2000 Iditarod Sled Dog Race because of illness or that finished the race indicated that, approximately 5 days after competing, 10 of 28 dogs (35%) had endoscopic evidence of gastric ulceration, erosion, or hemorrhage. The next year, an endoscopic study of 73 dogs participating in the 2001 Iditarod race was performed in order to evaluate a larger population of dogs. Data from 70 of these dogs could be used; 34 (48.5%) had ulceration, erosion, gastric hemorrhage, or some combination of these findings. When this group of 70 dogs was compared retrospectively to a control group of 87 dogs presented to the Texas A&M University (TAMU) Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, the Iditarod sled dogs had a significantly higher prevalence (P = .049) of gastric lesions. These findings suggest that, similar to athletes of other species, elite canine athletes have an increased prevalence of gastric disease compared to the canine population at large.  相似文献   

15.
Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.  相似文献   

16.
Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.  相似文献   

17.
The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.  相似文献   

18.
The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.  相似文献   

19.
The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.  相似文献   

20.
Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.  相似文献   

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