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1.
本研究对22份百脉根(Lotus corniculatus)种质资源的11个表型性状指标进行多样性研究分析。结果表明：除种宽外，22份百脉根种质间的表型性状均存在显著变异，表型性状指标变异幅度为12.11%～69.48%,各表型性状之间存在显著或极显著相关性。主成分分析表明，茎长、株高、冠幅、种子周长、种子长、种子宽和种子长宽比的主成分载荷较高，是造成百脉根种质表型性状差异的主要因素。根据聚类分析将22份百脉根种质分为3个类群，其中，第Ⅰ类群种质的种子小，但植株高大，第Ⅱ类群种质的种子小且植株矮小，第Ⅲ类群种质的种子和种荚大但植株矮小。综合评价11和12号这2份种质资源整体表现优良，且归属于第Ⅲ类群，具有种荚和种子较大的特性，可作为选育种子高产品种的目标亲本利用。本研究结果可为百脉根的种质应用和品种选育提供理论参考。  相似文献   

2.
椰子是热带地区重要的经济林木,选育优良的椰子品种有助于推动海南椰子产业的发展。以文昌市椰子资源调查中收集的41份高种椰子资源为材料,测定果实表型和果实品质的20个相关性状,通过相关性分析、主成分分析和聚类分析对椰子资源进行评价,以主成分得分进行综合排名。结果表明,果实性状指标在个体间存在广泛的变异,变异系数范围为6.38%-33.17%,其中椰肉厚的变异系数最大,果实横周长的变异系数最小;各指标间有18对的相关性达到了显著水平,43对的相关性达到了极显著水平;主成分分析提取了5个主成分,累积贡献率为78.33%;主成分分析结果为CX035、CX023、CX036、HW045、DJ147和CX024果实综合得分最高;聚类分析结果为CX035为第一类,CX024和CX023为第二类,DJ147为第三类,其他为第四类。主成分分析和聚类分析获得的结果基本一致。通过实验筛选出了6份综合表现较优良的资源,研究结果可以为椰子育种工作提供理论依据。  相似文献   

3.
本研究对134份皮燕麦(Avena sativa L.)种质资源的20个生物学性状进行多样性、主成分以及聚类分析，评价其生物学性状的遗传多样性，为内蒙古东部地区燕麦种质资源的开发利用提供依据。结果表明：各生物学性状具有丰富的遗传多样性，多样性指数最高的性状是株高和穗长，变异系数最大的性状是分蘖数和主穗籽粒重。前4个主成分因子的特征值均大于1,累计贡献率达78.328%,第一、二、三和四主成分分别反映籽粒产量、株高、粒型和分蘖能力。根据品种(系)间各性状的遗传差异，通过聚类分析将134份种质划分为4类，其中类群Ⅰ可作为选育特异穗粒的高产型燕麦品种的亲本，类群Ⅱ可作为选育高杆的粮饲兼用型燕麦品种的亲本，类群Ⅲ可作为选育大粒专用型燕麦品种的亲本，类群Ⅳ可作为选育矮杆燕麦品种的亲本。  相似文献   

4.
为更好利用紫花苜蓿品种材料，提高新品种选育效率，本研究以收集的55个紫花苜蓿品种为材料，通过利用变异系数、遗传多样性指数、相关性分析、聚类分析及主成分分析等方法对其主要农艺性状和产量性状进行分析和评价。结果表明，苜蓿品种的农艺性状和产量性状变异系数介于6.89%～23.42%,多样性指数介于0.714 3～0.884 5,多样性指数最高的是叶总干重，最低的是第二茬茎叶比和鲜干比。聚类分析将55个苜蓿品种划分为3大类群，类群Ⅰ、Ⅱ中的品种需进一步进行优良性状挖掘和作为互补材料进行育种利用，类群Ⅲ中的品种可直接引种进行生产，也可作为高产、优质品种选育中的亲本材料进行遗传改良。相关性和主成分分析得出，分枝数、鲜干比、茎干重、叶干重和株高是影响草产量的最主要因素。本研究的结果可为苜蓿品种的开发利用及半干旱区苜蓿品种选育提供参考。  相似文献   

5.
为客观评价燕麦种质资源农艺性状的遗传多样性,本试验对50份国外引进燕麦种质资源的27个农艺性状进行了形态多样性指数分析,并对其中的16个数量性状进行相关性分析、聚类分析和主成分分析,结果表明:遗传多样性指数最高的是穗长 (H'=2.04),变异系数最大的是营养枝数(63.36%);鲜草产量与干草产量、株高、分蘖数等呈极显著正相关(P<0.01);聚类分析将50份燕麦种质资源分为4大类群,第Ⅰ类群为早熟种质,具有植株高大、单株鲜草产量高、茎节数和小穗多、茎秆粗壮等特点,可作为选育多目标性状的优良种质或材料;第Ⅱ类群为中晚熟种质,但有益性状不明显;第Ⅲ类群属于中熟种质,植株分蘖能力强,种子千粒重高,可作为选育高产分蘖能力强的优良亲本;第Ⅳ类群属于晚熟种质,植株茎秆粗壮,可作为选育抗倒品种的优良亲本。主成分分析将16个数量性状指标集中在累计贡献率达77.00%的5个主成分中:第一主成分与燕麦牧草产量密切相关;第二主成分载荷最高的是单株营养枝数;第三主成分载荷最高的是生殖枝数;第四和五主成分主要反映茎节数和株高。综上所述,川西北地区引进的50份国内外燕麦种质资源的遗传多样性丰富,综合评价表明,种质Golden Yellow、Lightning、Golden Rain Ⅱ、Bambull Ⅱ可以作为亲本以改良当地燕麦品种。  相似文献   

6.
南铭  赵桂琴  柴继宽 《草地学报》2017,(6):1197-1205
通过遗传种质的多样性评估,可以指导育种中优异互补亲本的选择,进而提高优异基因的积累叠加和新品种培育的效率,为促进饲用燕麦品种选育提供基础依据。本研究选用45份来自国内外的饲用燕麦种质,通过对20个表型性状的遗传多样性分析,结合二维排序综合评价优异种质资源,结果表明:供试种质材料表型性状遗传多样性丰富,遗传基础广泛;单株粒重的遗传多样性指数(3.86)最高,单株粒数变异系数高达36.98%,所有表型性状均表现出了丰富的变异;主成分分析将10个表型性状转化成可以代表原有指标83.735%信息量的4个主成分,构建出以4个主成分因子为参数的定量评价函数模型,并通过二维排序筛选出Z4(青引1号)、Z5(Bauntebue)、Z6(定燕2号)、Z7(定引1号)、Z12(Jerry)、Z21(Marion)、Z22(Trophy)、Z32(Loevile)等8个因子协调最好的优异种质材料;系统聚类将供试种质划分为3大类群,第Ⅰ、Ⅲ类群可作为选育高产、抗病、抗倒品种的优良亲本,第Ⅱ类群包涵种质地理来源丰富,可作为选育多目标性状的优良亲本。  相似文献   

7.
为客观评价燕麦种质资源农艺性状的遗传多样性,本试验对50份国外引进燕麦种质资源的27个农艺性状进行了形态多样性指数分析,并对其中的16个数量性状进行相关性分析、聚类分析和主成分分析,结果表明:遗传多样性指数最高的是穗长(H′=2.04),变异系数最大的是营养枝数(63.36%);鲜草产量与干草产量、株高、分蘖数等呈极显著正相关(P0.01);聚类分析将50份燕麦种质资源分为4大类群,第Ⅰ类群为早熟种质,具有植株高大、单株鲜草产量高、茎节数和小穗多、茎秆粗壮等特点,可作为选育多目标性状的优良种质或材料;第Ⅱ类群为中晚熟种质,但有益性状不明显;第Ⅲ类群属于中熟种质,植株分蘖能力强,种子千粒重高,可作为选育高产分蘖能力强的优良亲本;第Ⅳ类群属于晚熟种质,植株茎秆粗壮,可作为选育抗倒品种的优良亲本。主成分分析将16个数量性状指标集中在累计贡献率达77.00%的5个主成分中:第一主成分与燕麦牧草产量密切相关;第二主成分载荷最高的是单株营养枝数;第三主成分载荷最高的是生殖枝数;第四和五主成分主要反映茎节数和株高。综上所述,川西北地区引进的50份国内外燕麦种质资源的遗传多样性丰富,综合评价表明,种质Golden Yellow、Lightning、Golden RainⅡ、BambullⅡ可以作为亲本以改良当地燕麦品种。  相似文献   

8.
以32个鸭茅（Dactylis glomerata）品种（系）为研究对象,对其12个表型及产量相关性状进行研究分析,以期为鸭茅品种选育及改良提供参考。结果表明：不同鸭茅品种资源的表型特征存在广泛变异,其中以穗叶距变异最大,花序宽度和节间长度次之,而倒二叶宽度变异最小,品种内平均表型变异系数为26.71%（01472）~179.13%（金牛）。供试各性状间显著相关,叶片长而宽的鸭茅,植株高大,节间长,穗叶距长。主成分结果显示,前3个主成分累计贡献率达61.75%,反映了总体数据的大部分信息。隶属函数法分析表明,‘滇北’、‘Cristobal’、‘01472’、‘波特’、‘宝兴’、‘川东’在各供试鸭茅品种（系）中表现较优,是鸭茅新品种选育和改良的优异亲本材料。  相似文献   

9.
采用相关性分析、主成分分析和聚类分析等方法,对43份寒地稗草的21个形态性状进行遗传多样性分析。结果表明:(1)21个形态性状中有6个性状只表现出一种表型,是相对稳定的形态性状,其余15个性状表现出不同程度的遗传差异。其中,叶长、叶宽和总状花序长度的变异系数较大,分别为17.51%、23.28%和16.74%。(2)部分数量性状间表现出显著或极显著的相关性,如叶长与圆锥花序长度和株高、叶宽与主茎直径、圆锥花序长度与总状花序长度均呈极显著正相关。(3)主成分分析表明,叶长、叶宽、圆锥花序长度、总状花序长度、小穗长度、主茎直径、小穗颜色、圆锥花序弯曲程度和株高等性状是造成寒地稗草表型差异的主要因素。(4)寒地稗草在遗传距离12.5处被划分成4大类群,且各类群间形态性状差异显著。第Ⅰ类群植株高大,但茎秆较细;第Ⅱ类群植株矮小纤细;第Ⅲ类群植株矮小但茎秆粗壮;第Ⅳ类群植株高大粗壮。  相似文献   

10.
对77份裸燕麦品种籽粒品质等相关性状进行测定,运用聚类分析方法对测定指标进行分类比较,并采用灰色关联度进行综合评价,以期筛选出籽粒性状在青海表现良好的裸燕麦品种。主要研究结果如下:1)供试燕麦品种千粒重变异系数最高为49.29%,籽粒粗脂肪和粗蛋白含量变异系数相对较低,分别为12.23%和9.83%;千粒重与籽粒长度、宽度和直径呈极显著正相关;籽粒含水率与粗蛋白、淀粉含量呈极显著负相关,籽粒粗蛋白含量与粗脂肪含量呈极显著负相关;2)灰色关联分析表明77份裸燕麦品种籽粒性状综合评价较高的3个品种分别为5号(0.679)、73号(0.676)和26号(0.649);3)供试燕麦性状聚类分析表明,77份裸燕麦品种可被分成6个类群,其中类群Ⅵ中综合评价前10的品种占70%,包括综合评价较高的3个品种(5号、73号和26号),可考虑作为优异燕麦品种的选择区域。  相似文献   

11.
试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。  相似文献   

12.
Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.  相似文献   

13.
1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.  相似文献   

14.
Human and equine athletes are reported to have a high prevalence of gastric disease, and anecdotal evidence suggests a similar phenomenon applies to racing sled dogs. To investigate the prevalence of gastric disease in racing sled dogs, we conducted 2 gastroscopy studies on dogs competing in the annual Iditarod Sled Dog Race. A pilot study of dogs that were either dropped from the 2000 Iditarod Sled Dog Race because of illness or that finished the race indicated that, approximately 5 days after competing, 10 of 28 dogs (35%) had endoscopic evidence of gastric ulceration, erosion, or hemorrhage. The next year, an endoscopic study of 73 dogs participating in the 2001 Iditarod race was performed in order to evaluate a larger population of dogs. Data from 70 of these dogs could be used; 34 (48.5%) had ulceration, erosion, gastric hemorrhage, or some combination of these findings. When this group of 70 dogs was compared retrospectively to a control group of 87 dogs presented to the Texas A&M University (TAMU) Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, the Iditarod sled dogs had a significantly higher prevalence (P = .049) of gastric lesions. These findings suggest that, similar to athletes of other species, elite canine athletes have an increased prevalence of gastric disease compared to the canine population at large.  相似文献   

15.
Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.  相似文献   

16.
Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.  相似文献   

17.
The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.  相似文献   

18.
The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.  相似文献   

19.
The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.  相似文献   

20.
Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.  相似文献   

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