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1.
东祁连山高寒草地返青期不同草地型土壤磷的分布特征   总被引：3，自引：0，他引：3  
试验在东祁连山选择代表性的七种高寒草地型为研究对象,在返青期对其土壤微生物量磷(MBP)、全磷和速效磷及其相关性进行了研究.结果表明,土壤全磷和速效磷分别介于1.0～2.0g/kg和14.3～52.9 mg/kg,样地间差异较大,且速效磷上层高于下层,除禾草草地外草本草地显著高于灌丛草地(P＜0.05);土壤微生物量磷及其对土壤全磷贡献率分别介于22.46～64.27mg/kg和1.75%～4.59%,且上层高于下层;微生物量磷与微生物量碳氮除嵩草草地外均呈极显著正相关(P＜0.01),草地型对该相关性的影响不明显,该相关性由土壤微生物本身或其群落结构决定;土壤微生物量磷与土壤化学性质关系密切,植物群落对此相关性影响不明显;微生物量碳磷比和微生物量氮磷比分别介于4.38～21.50和1.07～3.88,草地型间差异显著(P＜0.05),说明在不同草地型间土壤微生物量及群落结构均有差异.  相似文献   

2.
东祁连山高寒草地返青期不同草地型土壤氮的分布特征   总被引：2，自引：1，他引：1  
本试验在东祁连山选择代表性的7种高寒草地型为研究对象,在返青期对其土壤微生物量氮、全氮、K2SO4浸提氮、碱解氮、氮密度及其相关性进行了研究。结果表明,土壤全氮、碱解氮和氮密度分别介于4.2~7.9 g/kg、104.1~234.0 mg/kg和0.38~0.61 kg/m2。2005和2006年土壤K2SO4浸提氮分别介于3.4~11.4和1.8~13.9 mg/kg,占土壤微生物量氮的3.93%~11.62%和3.88%~15.37%。微生物量氮在2005和2006年分别介于49.0~143.0 mg/kg和35.9~171.7 mg/kg;与K2SO4浸提碳在灌丛草地呈显著正相关(P<0.05),在草本草地呈极显著正相关(P<0.01);与K2SO4浸提氮在杜鹃灌丛和高山柳灌丛呈极显著正相关(P<0.01),在金露梅灌丛和草本草地呈显著正相关(P<0.05)。除嵩草草地外,微生物量氮与微生物量碳和微生物量磷呈极显著正相关(P<0.01)。2005年K2SO4浸提氮和微生物量氮对土壤全氮贡献率分别为0.07%~0.16%和1.16%~1.93%。在东祁连山高寒草地,草地型间土壤全氮、碱解氮、K2SO4浸提氮及微生物量氮有明显差异,且草地型决定了微生物量氮的数量和生态分布,植物群落是影响微生物量氮数量和生态分布及其与土壤K2SO4浸提碳、氮相关性的关键因素之一;微生物量碳、氮、磷间的相关性由土壤微生物本身或其群落结构决定。  相似文献   

3.
本试验以东祁连山杜鹃灌丛草地、高山柳灌丛草地和金露梅灌丛草地为研究对象,对土壤微生物量和土壤酶的季节性动态等进行了研究。结果表明,土壤微生物量碳的季节动态表现为从5月到7月显著上升(P<0.05),之后到9月显著下降(P<0.05),9月到11月又略有上升,最大值和最小值分别出现在7月和9月;除高山柳灌丛草地土壤微生物量氮外,土壤微生物量氮和磷季节动态为从5月到9月显著下降(P<0.05),9月后又略有上升,但差异不显著,最大值在5月;土壤微生物量碳、氮和磷分别对土壤有机质、全氮和全磷的贡献率季节动态与微生物量碳、氮和磷季节动态基本一致;土壤微生物量碳氮比介于5.79~10.31,最大值出现在7月,最小值出现在9月,下层高于上层。在3个灌丛草地,脲酶季节动态表现为从5月到7月上升,7月之后下降,最大值出现在7月,最小值出现在11月;杜鹃灌丛草地和高山柳灌丛草地中性磷酸酶最大值在11月,但金露梅灌丛草地最大值在9月,该酶在3个灌丛草地季节动态差异明显,在杜鹃灌丛草地从5月到7月略上升,7月到9月显著下降(P<0.05),9月后显著上升(P<0.05),在金露梅灌丛则为从5月到9月上升,后下降,而在高山柳灌丛则为从5月到11月逐渐上升。  相似文献   

4.
探究三江源区高寒草地表层(0～10 cm)土壤碳、氮、磷密度空间稳定性对评价区域生态系统养分循环具有重要意义。本研究于2017年8—9月对三江源区13个县/镇的植被、土壤和气象数据进行收集，分析了三江源区高寒草地表层土壤碳、氮、磷密度空间稳定性及影响因素。结果表明：三江源区土壤表层碳、氮、磷的空间分布主要受海拔影响，土壤有机碳、全氮、全磷密度随海拔增加呈先增加后降低的趋势，无机碳密度则呈先降低后增加的趋势。根据空间聚类分析的结果，土壤有机碳、全氮密度空间稳定性在三江源区内呈东南向西北递减的趋势，无机碳与之相反，全磷则为南部地区高于北部地区。三江源区土壤碳、氮、磷密度空间稳定性大小的排序为全磷>全氮>有机碳>无机碳，这主要与海拔、植被多样性、地下生物量、土壤含水量、土壤pH值等因子的密切相关。  相似文献   

5.
为了解青藏高原高寒草甸土壤碳(Carbon,C)、氮(Nitrogen,N)、磷(Phosphorus,P)化学计量特征对氮、磷添加的响应,提高养分管理水平及草地生态系统的养分平衡。本研究严格筛选出21篇文章(612项数据)进行Meta分析,通过亚组分析分析了不同施肥方式(氮添加、磷添加、氮磷添加)、不同施肥强度(轻度、中度、重度)对青藏高原草地土壤C,N,P化学计量特征的影响。研究结果表明：养分添加显著增加了青藏高原草地土壤C,N,P含量;氮添加对土壤的增加效应随施肥强度增加而增加,磷轻度施肥(20g·m-2以下)处理、氮磷添加轻度施肥处理下的土壤C,N,P含量及化学计量比增加效果最好。本研究结果总体反映出氮、磷添加对青藏高原高寒草甸土壤产生积极影响,研究结果可为青藏高原草地生态系统的保护提供科学依据。  相似文献   

6.
放牧强度对荒漠草原地区土壤有机碳及全氮含量的影响   总被引：3，自引：0，他引：3  
根据植被种类组成、植被盖度以及枯枝落叶的积累量在内蒙古四子王旗的短花针茅草原样地设4个退化梯度,分别为对照、轻度放牧、中度放牧和重度放牧,研究了不同放牧强度对土壤有机碳和全氮含量的影响.结果表明:2007年土壤有机碳和全氮含量分别介于25.32～27.02g/kg、1.40～1.47g/kg之间,2008年分别介于25.22～27.20g/kg、1.55～1.62g/kg之间,2009年分别介于25.44～27.51g/kg、1.64～1.71g/kg之间;土壤表层(0～20cm)的有机碳和全氮含量随着放牧强度的增大而逐渐降低,重度放牧区显著低于不放牧区、轻度放牧区和中度放牧区;土壤C/N比逐年降低,不同放牧区间差异不显著.  相似文献   

7.
不同恢复措施对宁夏典型草原土壤碳氮储量的影响   总被引：3，自引：0，他引：3  
为探讨不同恢复措施下草原土壤有机碳、全氮储量特征的变化,以宁夏黄土丘陵区典型草原为对象,对放牧(对照GG),封育(EG),水平沟(CG)和鱼鳞坑(FG)3种不同恢复措施下0~40 cm土壤有机碳、全氮储量进行研究。研究表明:1)土壤有机碳和全氮含量以封育草地最高,分别为30.35和2.92 g/kg,放牧草地次之,水平沟草地最低(P<0.05);C/N表现为封育最高,水平沟次之,放牧草地最低;各措施下土壤有机碳和全氮含量随着土层加深整体呈下降趋势。2)土壤有机碳和全氮密度呈封育和放牧草地较高,鱼鳞坑居中,水平沟最低。各恢复措施下有机碳密度随着土层加深而降低,全氮密度无明显规律。3)土壤碳氮储量表现为封育草地>放牧草地>鱼鳞坑草地>水平沟草地。禁牧封育更有利于该区典型草原土壤有机碳和全氮储量的积累。  相似文献   

8.
陈彦硕  王红梅  郭天斗  马彦平 《草地学报》2022,30(10):2663-2674
探析荒漠草原向灌丛转变过程土壤呼吸动态及其影响因素，对确定干旱半干旱生态系统碳“源”/“汇”状态具有重要意义。本研究以宁夏东部荒漠草原-灌丛镶嵌体为研究对象，选取荒漠草地、草地边缘、灌丛边缘、灌丛地为研究样地，开展各样地微生境(植丛与空斑)下土壤呼吸(Rs)及相关土壤性质研究，结果表明：随着荒漠草原向灌丛地转变，土壤呼吸日动态与季节动态呈上升趋势，季节动态在7月达到峰值(P<0.05)，灌丛地显著高出荒漠草地42.4%；土壤温度为转变过程土壤呼吸日动态的主要影响因子，温度和水分共同影响(R2介于0.44~0.80)土壤呼吸季节动态；回归分析和主成分分析表明，土壤呼吸与全碳、全氮、微生物生物量碳、生物量氮、土壤有机碳呈显著负相关(P<0.01)，与硝态氮呈显著正相关(P<0.05)。综上，近30年灌丛转变过程促使土壤二氧化碳通量增加，加速荒漠草原有机碳养分消耗。  相似文献   

9.
不同高寒草甸土壤碳氮稳定同位素和密度的差异   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
为了解不同类型高寒草甸土壤碳氮稳定同位素和密度的差异,采用稳定同位素质谱仪Isoprime100对采自黄河源区不同高寒草甸覆被条件下0~30 cm土壤进行了碳氮稳定同位素组成特征和密度分析。结果表明,高寒草甸土壤δ13C值介于-25.42‰~-24.20‰之间,δ15N值介于3.37‰~4.69‰之间,显著高于大气δ15N值。δ13C值和δ15N值均随土壤深度加深而增大。人工草地土壤δ13C值显著低于轻度和重度退化草甸(P<0.05),而δ15N值显著高于轻度和重度退化草甸(P<0.05)。土壤碳氮比最小值为7.89,最大值为9.97,平均碳氮比为8.71。土壤有机碳含量和全氮含量呈正相关(P<0.01),二者的回归方程为y=0.0963x+0.0336(R2=0.9619)。轻度退化草甸、严重退化草甸和人工草地0~30 cm土壤碳密度依次为7.14、6.67和6.46 kg/m2;全氮密度依次为0.83、0.77和0.75 kg/m2。植物吸收、生长有利于12C和14N的输出,而将较重的13C和15N留在了土壤中。人工草地植物生长势强,形成的地上生物量多,吸收了较多的土壤氮素14N,导致土壤15N升高。植被退化或种植人工草地均可导致土壤碳氮密度的显著降低,这种变化主要发生在0~20 cm土层。  相似文献   

10.
科学评价灌丛草地自然恢复演替特征，以期为灌丛草地的生态修复和可持续利用提供理论依据。采用“空间代替时间”的方法，研究了东祁连山小叶金露梅+杯腺柳灌丛植被碳储量和土壤理化性质对自然恢复演替的响应。结果表明，随着小叶金露梅+杯腺柳灌丛恢复演替期的延长（约20年），灌丛群落碳储量增加1.2~3.8倍；丛间土壤呼吸速率增大1.1~2.0倍，丛内保持不变；丛间和丛内土壤含水量减小1.0~1.5倍，容重增大1.0~2.0倍；丛间和丛内土壤有机质、速效氮和速效磷含量均呈先增后减的单峰曲线，其含量先增加2.0%~48.7%，后减少4.4%~32.0%，全磷和全钾含量增加3.0%~76.0%，其他养分含量变化各异。随着灌丛草地植被的恢复演替，草地碳储量增加，但土壤理化性质受负面影响。故建议积极探寻实现草地生态系统高效、平衡和持续发展的途径，使灌木和草本植物协调共生、和谐生长，稳定生态系统平衡，提高草牧业生产能力和增加农牧民经济收入。  相似文献   

11.
试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。  相似文献   

12.
Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.  相似文献   

13.
1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.  相似文献   

14.
Human and equine athletes are reported to have a high prevalence of gastric disease, and anecdotal evidence suggests a similar phenomenon applies to racing sled dogs. To investigate the prevalence of gastric disease in racing sled dogs, we conducted 2 gastroscopy studies on dogs competing in the annual Iditarod Sled Dog Race. A pilot study of dogs that were either dropped from the 2000 Iditarod Sled Dog Race because of illness or that finished the race indicated that, approximately 5 days after competing, 10 of 28 dogs (35%) had endoscopic evidence of gastric ulceration, erosion, or hemorrhage. The next year, an endoscopic study of 73 dogs participating in the 2001 Iditarod race was performed in order to evaluate a larger population of dogs. Data from 70 of these dogs could be used; 34 (48.5%) had ulceration, erosion, gastric hemorrhage, or some combination of these findings. When this group of 70 dogs was compared retrospectively to a control group of 87 dogs presented to the Texas A&M University (TAMU) Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, the Iditarod sled dogs had a significantly higher prevalence (P = .049) of gastric lesions. These findings suggest that, similar to athletes of other species, elite canine athletes have an increased prevalence of gastric disease compared to the canine population at large.  相似文献   

15.
Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.  相似文献   

16.
Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.  相似文献   

17.
The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.  相似文献   

18.
The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.  相似文献   

19.
The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.  相似文献   

20.
Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.  相似文献   

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